C—  k        \J 

P  H 


PARAGRAPH-WRITING 


T 
BY 


FRED   N.   SCOTT,  PH.D. 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OF  KHETORIC  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  MICHIGAN 


AND 

JOSEPH   V.  DENNEY,  A.B. 

PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  IN  OHIO  STATE  UNIVERSITY. 


THIRD  EDITION,    REVISED  AND  ENLARGED 


Boston 

ALLYN    AND    BACON 

1895 


COPYRIGHT,  1893, 
BY  FEED  N.   SCOTT  AND  JOSEPH  V.  DENNEY. 


Nortoooli  ^rrgg : 

].  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  — Berwick  &  Smith. 
Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE. 


THE  principles  embodied  in  this  work  were  developed 
and  put  in  practice  by  its  authors  at  the  University  of 
Michigan  several  years  ago.  When  the  nature  of  the  class- 
room work  and  its  results  became  known,  there  were  many 
inquiries  from  teachers  in  preparatory  schools  and  colleges 
in  regard  to  the  methods  employed.  In  response  to  these 
inquiries  a  small  pamphlet  (now  out  of  print)  was  pub- 
lished and  circulated.  The  present  work,  while  in  a  lim- 
ited sense  a  revision  of  that  pamphlet,  is  virtually  another 
book.  In  the  earlier  work  the  aim  was  to  suggest  a  useful 
exercise  in  writing  English.  This  book  goes  farther.  Its 
aim  is  to  make  the  paragraph  the  basis  of  a  method  of 
composition,  to  present  all  the  important  facts  of  rhetoric 
in  their  application  to  the  paragraph.  Since  the  point  of 
view  which  is  assumed  is  in  some  respects  novel,  a  few 
words  of  explanation  will  not  be  out  of  place. 

Learning  to  write  well  in  one's  own  language  means  in 
large  part  learning  to  give  unity  and  coherence  to  one's 
ideas.  It  means  learning  to  construct  units  of  discourse 
which  have  order  and  symmetry  and  coherence  of  parts. 
It  means  learning  theoretically  how  such  units  are  made, 
and  practically  how  to  put  them  together ;  and  further,  if 
they  turn  out  badly  the  first  time,  how  to  take  them  apart 
and  put  them  together  again  in  another  and  better  order, 
The  making  and  re-making  of  such  units  is  in  genera? 
terms  the  task  of  all  who  produce  written  discourse. 

iii 


iv  Preface. 

The  task  of  the  teacher  of  those  who  produce  written 
discourse,  it  follows,  is  in  great  part  setting  students  to 
construct  such  units,  explaining  the  principles  upon  which 
the  units  are  made,  arousing  a  sense  that  they  are  units 
and  not  mere  heaps  or  nebulous  masses,  and  (hoc  opus, 
hie  labor  est)  correcting  departures  from  unity,  order,  and 
coherence  when  such  departures  occur. 

Work  of  this  kind  on  the  part  of  writer  or  of  teacher 
presupposes  a  unit  of  discourse.  Of  these  units  there  are 
three, — the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the  essay  or 
whole  composition.  Which  of  these  three  is  best  adapted, 
psychologically  and  pedagogically,  to  the  end  proposed? 
The  sentence  may  be  rejected  at  the  outset  as  at  once  too 
simple  and  too  fragmentary.  Practice  in  the  composing  of 
disconnected  sentences  is  not  of  much  service  to  students 
of  composition.  This  remark  applies  to  the  lower  as  well 
as  to  the  higher  grades.1  Moreover,  as  Professor  Barrett 
Wendell  has  pointed  out  (English  Composition,  p.  117),  the 
sentence  is  properly  a  subject  of  revision,  not  of  prevision, 
—  good  sentences  are  produced  by  criticising  them  after 
they  are  written  rather  than  by  planning  them  beforehand. 
Putting  the  sentence  aside,  then,  what  shall  be  said  of  the 
paragraph  and  the  essay  ?  Of  the  two  the  essay  is  theo- 
retically the  more  proper  unit  of  discourse.  But  is  it 
always  so  in  practice  ?  Is  it  not  true  that  for  students  at 
a  certain  stage  of  their  progress  the  essay  is  too  complex 
and  too  cumbersome  to  be  appreciated  as  a  whole  ?  Aris- 
totle long  ago  laid  down  the  psychological  principle  which 
should  govern  the  selection  of  a  structural  unit :  "  As  for 
the  limit  fixt  by  the  nature  of  the  case,  the  greatest  con- 

1  A  series  of  experiments  conducted  by  Miss  H.  M.  Scott,  Principal  of 
the  Detroit  Training  School  for  Teachers  (Report  of  the  Detroit  Normal 
Training  School  for  1893) ,  show  that .  children  even  in  the  lowest  grades 
comprehend  a  paragraph-group,  or  '  sequence '  of  sentences,  more  readily 
than  sentences  taken  separately.  They  learn  to  read  more  easily  and 
rapidly  by  the  '  paragraph  method '  than  by  the  sentence  method. 


Preface.  v 

sisterit  with  simultaneous  comprehension  is  always  the 
best."  If  students  who  have  written  essays  for  years  have 
with  all  their  labor  developed  but  a  feeble  sense  for  struct- 
ural unity,  may  the  reason  not  lie  in  the  fact  that  the  unit 
of  discourse  employed  has  been  so  large  and  so  complex 
that  it  could  not  be  grasped  with  a  single  effort  of  the 
mind? 

If  there  is  a  measure  of  truth  in  what  has  here  been 
urged,  it  would  appear  that  for  certain  periods  in  the  stu- 
dent's development  the  paragraph,  as  an  example  of  struct- 
ural unity,  offers  peculiar  advantages.  The  nature  of  these 
advantages  has  already  been  suggested.  They  are,  in  brief, 
as  follows :  The  paragraph,  being  in  its  method  practically 
identical  with  the  essay,  exemplifies  identical  principles  of 
structure.  It  exemplifies  these  principles  in  small  and 
convenient  compass  so  that  they  are  easily  appreciable  by 
the  beginner.  Further,  while  the  writing  of  the  paragraph 
exercises  the  student  in  the  same  elements  of  structure 
which  would  be  brought  to  his  attention  were  he  drilled  in 
the  writing  of  essays,  he  can  write  more  paragraphs  than 
he  can  write  essays  in  the  same  length  of  time ;  hence  the 
character  of  the  work  may  be  made  for  him  more  varied, 
progressive,  and  interesting.  If  the  paragraph  thus  suits 
the  needs  of  the  student,  it  has  even  greater  advantages 
from  the  point  of  view  of  the  teacher.  The  bugbear  of  the 
teacher  of  Rhetoric  is  the  correcting  of  essays.  When 
the  compositions  are  long  and  crude  and  errors  abound, 
the  burden  sometimes  becomes  almost  intolerable.  In 
many  cases  it  is  a  necessary  burden  and  must  be  borne 
with  patience,  but  this  is  not  always  so.  Since  the  student 
within  the  limits  of  the  paragraph  makes  the  same  errors 
which  he  commits  in  the  writing  of  longer  compositions, 
in  the  greater  part  of  the  course  the  written  work  may 
profitably  be  shortened  from  essays  to  paragraphs.  Para- 
graph-writing has  the  further  advantage  that,  if  necessary, 


vi  Preface. 

the  composition  may  be  re-written  from  beginning  to  end, 
and,  most  important  of  all,  when  completed  is  not  too  long 
for  the  teacher  to  read  and  criticise  in  the  presence  of  the 
class. 

Finally,  the  paragraph  furnishes  a  natural  introduction 
to  work  of  a  more  difficult  character.  When  the  time 
comes  for  the  writing  of  essays,  the  transition  from  the 
smaller  unit  to  its  larger  analogue  is  made  with  facility. 
Upon  this  point  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  quote  the 
words  of  Professor  Bain :  — 

Adapting  an  old  homely  maxim,  we  may  say,  Look  to  the  Para- 
graphs, and  the  Discourse  will  look  to  itself,  for,  although  a  discourse 
as  a  whole  has  a  method  or  plan  suited  to  its  nature,  yet  the  confining 
of  each  paragraph  to  a  distinct  topic  avoids  some  of  the  worst  faults  of 
Composition  ;  besides  which,  he  that  fully  comprehends  the  method  of 
a  paragraph  will  also  comprehend  the  method  of  an  entire  work.  — 
Bam  :  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  I.  §  178. 

This  book  is  an  attempt  to  embody  in  a  manual  the  ideas 
which  have  just  been  advanced,  —  to  utilize  this  convenient 
element  of  discourse,  this  half-way  house  between  the  sen- 
tence and  the  essay,  as  a  basis  for  a  method  of  English  compo- 
sition. In  Part  I.,  following  the  natural  order  of  treatment, 
the  nature  and  laws  of  the  paragraph  are  presented;  the 
isolated  paragraph,  its  structure  and  function,  are  dis- 
cussed :  and  finally,  considerable  space  is  devoted  to  related 
paragraphs,  that  is,  those  which  are  combined  into  essays. 
Part  II.  is  a  chapter  on  the  theory  of  the  paragraph  in- 
tended for  teachers  and  advanced  students.  In  Part  III. 
will  be  found  copious  materials  for  class-room  work,  — 
selected  paragraphs,  suggestions  to  teachers,1  lists  of  sub- 

1  The  hints  and  suggestions  given  on  the  following  pages  will,  it  is 
hoped,  be  found  of  especial  interest  to  teachers  :  (in  fine  print)  pp.  15,  16, 
18,  24,  36,  39,  44,  58,  60,  68,  84,  85,  106 ;  (in  large  print)  pp.  119,  120,  172, 
173,  174,  180,  182,  191,  202,  203,  212,  213,  255-259. 


Preface.  vii 

jects   for  compositions  (about  two  thousand   in  all),  and 
helpful  references  of  many  kinds. 

A  general  acknowledgment  of  the  sources  from  which 
assistance  has  been  received  will  be  found  on  p.  106.  For 
the  ingenious  and  workable  method  of  drill  outlined  in 
Appendix  A  12  (pp.  119,  120),  the  authors  are  indebted  to 
Dr.  A.  F.  Lange,  Associate  Professor  of  English  in  the 
University  of  California. 


PREFACE   TO   THE   THIRD  EDITION. 

IN  completion  of  the  general  plan  of  the  book,  and  in 
deference  to  the  wishes  of  many  teachers  who  are  using 
PARAGRAPH-WRITING  as  an  elementary  rhetoric,  the  authors 
have  added  to  this  revision,  as  Appendix  H,  a  chapter  on 
the  Rhetoric  of  the  Paragraph,  in  which  will  be  found 
applications  of  the  paragraph-idea  to  the  sentence  and  to 
the  constituent  parts  of  the  sentence  so  far  as  these  demand 
especial  notice.  The  new  material  thus  provided,  supplies, 
in  the  form  of  principles  and  illustrations,  as  much  additional 
theory  as  the  student  of  elementary  rhetoric  needs  to  master 
and  apply  in  order  to  improve  the  details  of  his  paragraphs 
in  unity,  clearness,  and  force. 

Each  of  these  three  essentials  is  first  presented  as  a 
requisite  of  the  paragraph  as  a  whole.  It  is  then  applied 
to  the  sentence  and  to  the  lesser  articulations  of  thought 
within  the  sentence.  Principles  governing  such  matters  as 
the  choice  of  sentence-forms,  the  placement  of  clauses  and 
phrases,  and  the  minutiae  of  composition,  thus  find  their 
reason  and  explanation  in  the  needs  of  the  paragraph  as  the 
larger  and  determining  unit. 

The  study  of  Elegance,  or  Beauty,  as  a  distinct  topic,  is 
purposely  omitted.  Students  need  first  of  all  to  learn  the 


viii  Preface. 

beauty  of  unified  thought  and  the  beauty  of  clear  statement. 
Through  long  practice  of  these  excellences  they  may  come, 
at  a  later  stage  of  their  study,  to  safe  and  sound  ideas  of 
beauty  as  a  definite  rhetorical  principle;  but  until  they 
reach  that  stage,  attempts  to  teach  them  Elegance  are  only 
too  likely  to  result  in  'fine  writing/  exhibitions  of  crude 
taste,  and  the  misconception  that  rhetoric,  in  one  of  its 
departments,  deals  largely  in  adornment  and  sentimentality. 

Figures  of  speech  are  referred  to  only  so  far  as  their 
misuse  hinders  the  attainment  of  unity,  clearness,  and  force. 
Questions  of  word-usage  are  left  to  be  answered  by  refer- 
ence to  the  dictionary. 

Appendix  H  is  not  an  exercise  in  the  correction  of  bad 
English.  The  groups  of  quotations  given  are  intended,  with 
the  accompanying  theory,  to  furnish  sufficient  material  from 
which  to  deduce  the  principles  that  follow  each  group.  The 
appendix  may  properly  be  introduced  as  supplementary  text 
in  connection  with  the  chapter  that  closes  on  page  47. 

References  to  Appendix  H  have  been  inserted  in  Appendix 
G  5  for  the  convenience  of  the  student  in  revising  and  cor- 
recting errors  that  are  marked  in  his  paragraphs  and  essays. 

In  other  respects,  also,  the  book  has  been  revised  for  this 
edition;  but  the  changes  in  the  text,  while  numerous,  are 
too  minute  to  deserve  mention  in  detail.  For  most  of  these 
corrections  and  improvements  the  authors  are  indebted  to 
teachers  who  are  using  the  work  in  their  classes.  To  these, 
and  to  all  others  who  have  been  so  kind  as  to  offer  sug- 
gestions, the  authors  wish  to  make  here  a  general  acknowl- 
edgment. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PART  I. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY 1 

(a)  Definition  of  the  Paragraph 1 

(6)  Classes  of  Paragraphs 2 

(1)  The  Related  Paragraph 2 

(2)  The  Isolated  Paragraph 2 

(c)  General  Laws  of  the  Paragraph 4 

(1)  Unity 4 

(2)  Selection 6 

(3)  Proportion 10 

(4)  Sequence 13 

(5)  Variety 15 

(d)  Application  of  these  Laws  in  Choice  of  Paragraph  Subject  17 
THE  ISOLATED  PARAGRAPH 18 

1.  Paragraph  Subject 19 

(a)  Where  placed 19 

(1)  First 19 

(2)  First  and  Last 20 

(3)  Last 21 

(6)  Subject  Implied 23 

2.  Means  of  Developing 24 

•  (a)  Repetition 25 

•  (6)  Definition  26 

(c)  Contrast 27 

•  (d)  Explanation  and  Illustration 28 

(e)  Particulars  and  Details 30 

•(/)  Proofs 31 

(#)  Enforcement 32 

(ft)  Introduction  and  Transition 33 

3.  Effect  on  Sentence  Structure 36 

(a)  Inversion 37 

(6)  Parallel  Construction 38 

ix 


x  Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE 

(c)  Repetition 39 

(d)  Subordination 40 

(e)  Punctuation 42 

4.    Types  of  Paragraph  Structure 47 

(a)  Expository  and  Argumentative 48 

1.  The  Logical  Type 48 

(1)  Deductive 49 

(2)  Inductive 50 

2.  The  Less  Formal  Types 51 

(1)  Paragraphs  of  Definition 52 

(2)  Paragraphs  of  Detail 54 

(3)  Other  Types '. 54 

(6)   Descriptive  and  Narrative 55 

(1)  Portrait  Sketches 56 

(2)  Character  Sketches 58 

THE  RELATED  PARAGRAPH 60 

1.  Special  Form^ 60 

(a)  Introductory  and  Concluding  Paragraphs 61 

(6)  Transitional  ctnd  Directive  Paragraphs 63 

(c)   Amplifying  Paragraphs 63 

2.  The  Writing  of  Essays 64 

(a)  The  Descriptive  Essay 65 

(1)  Province  and  Kinds  of  Description 65 

(2)  Selection  of  a  Subject 66 

(3)  Outlining  the  Subject 66 

(4)  Purpose  in  Description    67 

(5)  Point  of  View 67 

(6)  Selection  of  Details 68 

(7)  Sequence  and  Grouping  of  Details 69 

(8)  Helps  to  Description 69 

(6)  The  Narrative  Essay 70 

(1)  Province  and  Kinds  of  Narration 70 

(2)  Selection  of  a  Subject 70 

(3)  Outlining  the  Subject 71 

(4)  "Unity  and  Selection 72 

(5)  Sequence  and  Grouping  of  Details 73 

(6)  Suspense  and  Movement 73 

(7)  Plausibility  and  Verisimilitude 74 

(8)  Helps  to  Narration 74 

(c)  The  Expository  Essay 75 

1.    Kinds  and  Uses  of  Exposition 76 


. 


Table  of  Contents.  xi 

PAGE 

-^2.   Scientific  Exposition 76 

(1)  Analysis  by  Partition 77 

(2)  Analysis  by  Division 78 

(3)  Exposition  by  Definition 80 

(4)  Exposition  by  Similarity  and  Contrast 81 

-"3.    Popular  Exposition 82 

(1)  The  Didactic  Essay 82 

(2)  The  Conversational  Essay 83 

(3)  The  Critical  Essay 83 

4.    The  Paraphrase  and  the  Abstract 85 

(d)  The  Argumentative  Essay 87 

1.  The  Proposition 87 

2.  Classification  and  Kinds  of  Arguments 88 

3.  The  Order  of  Arguments 91 


PAKT   II. 

THEORY  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH 93 

PAKT  in. 

APPENDICES 107 

A    1.   Paragraphs  to  be  criticised  and  re-written 107 

2.  General  subjects  to  be  narrowed 110 

3.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  repetition Ill 

4.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  definition 112 

5.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  contrast 112 

6.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  explanation 113 

7.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  particulars 114 

8.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  proofs 115 

9.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  enforcement 116 

10.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed  by  any  method 117 

11.  Table  of  typical  paragraph  structure 118 

12.  Outlines  for  paragraph- writing  and  specimen  outlines  119 

13.  Paragraphs  for  analysis  by  thought  divisions 137 

B.   A  selected  list  of  typical  paragraphs  for  various  exercises  141 

«<C  1  (a).   Ten-minute  themes  in  exposition  and  argument 172 

1(6).   Other  sources  of  themes 174 

1  (c).    Themes  for  practice  in  outlining 175 

2.          Ten-minute  themes  in  narration  and  description  .  . .  179 


xii  Table  of  Contents. 

PAGE 

3  (a).  List  of  references  to  selections  for  short  reproduc- 
tions in  class 180 

3  (6).  List  of  references  to  selections  for  paraphrases  and 

abstracts  182 

D  1.    Typical  introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs 185 

2.  Typical  transitional  and  directive  paragraphs 187 

3.  Typical  amplifying  paragraphs 189 

E  (a).  A  list  of  references  to  short  stories  for  rhetorical 

analysis 191 

(6).    A  list  of  references  to  essays,  speeches,  and  sketches 

for  rhetorical  analysis 195 

F.   Suggestions  of  exercises  in  reporting,  editing,  and  proof- 
reading   202 

G  1.    A  general  reference  list  to  bibliographies 212 

2.  A  classified  list  of  essay- subjects 213 

3.  A  miscellaneous  list  of  essay- subjects  j 237 

4.  General  rules  for  capitals  and  punctuation,  with  news- 

paper variations 244 

5.  Abbreviations  used  in  correcting  manuscripts 255 

H.   The  Rhetoric  of  the  Paragraph 260 


INDEXES. 

I.   GENERAL  INDEX 289 

II.   INDEX  TO  ESSAY-SUBJECTS ,        291 


PARAGRAPH-WRITING. 


PART  I. 

INTKODUCTOKY. 
(a)    DEFINITION  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

A  paragraph  is  a  unit  of  discourse  developing  a  single 
idea.  It  consists  of  a  group  or  series  of  sentences  closely 
related  to  one  another  and  to  the  thought  expressed  by  the 
whole  group  or  series.  Devoted,  like  the  sentence,  to  the 
development  of  one  topic,  a  good  paragraph  is  also,  like  a 
good  essay,  a  complete  treatment  in  itself. 

The  following  paragraphs  illustrate  this  close  relation  of 
sentences :  — 

I  willingly  concede  all  that  you  say  against  fashionable  society  as  a 
whole.  It  is,  as  you  say,  frivolous,  bent  on  amusement,  incapable  of 
attention  sufficiently  prolonged  to  grasp  any  serious  subject,  and 
liable  both  to  confusion  and  inaccuracy  in  the  ideas  which  it  hastily 
forms  or  easily  receives.  You  do  right,  assuredly,  not  to  let  it  waste 
your  most  valuable  hours,  but  I  believe  also  that  you  do  wrong  in 
keeping  out  of  it  altogether. 

The  society  which  seems  so  frivolous  in  masses  contains  individual 
members  who,  if  you  knew  them  better,  would  be  able  and  willing  to 
render  you  the  most  efficient  intellectual  help,  and  you  miss  this  help 
by  restricting  yourself  exclusively  to  books.  Nothing  can  replace 
the  conversation  of  living  men  and  women ;  not  even  the  richest 
literature  can  replace  it.  —  Hamerton  :  The  Intellectual  Life,  Part  IX. 
Letter  V. 


Paragraph  -  Writing. 


(b)    CLASSES  OF  PARAGRAPHS. 

A  paragraph  may  be  studied  as  constituting  with  other 
paragraphs  a  complete  essay,  or,  it  may  be  regarded  by 
itself  as  a  separate  and  complete  composition  in  miniature. 


(1)  The  Belated  Paragraph. 

Paragraphs  of  the  first  class  we  will  call  related  para- 
graphs since  they  are  closely  related  to  each  other  and*  to 
the  essay  of  which  they  are  the  constituent  units.  Succes- 
sive related  paragraphs,  as  portions  of  a  larger  whole,  treat 
in  turn  the  topics  into  which,  according  to  the  general  plan 
of  the  production,  the  subject  naturally  divides  itself.  If 
the  subject  of  the  essay  requires  but  a  brief  treatment  and 
the  plan  includes  but  two  or  three  main  headings,  a  single 
paragraph  may  suffice  for  each.  Of  a  more  extensive  produc- 
tion, involving  carefully  planned  divisions  and  subdivisions 
in  the  outline,  each  sub-topic  may  require  a  separate  para- 
graph for  its  adequate  treatment. 

(2)  The  Isolated  Paragraph. 

A  large  class  of  subjects,  however,  admit  of  complete 
treatment  in  single  paragraphs.  Such  are  simple  in  their 
nature ;  for  example,  incidents,  brief  descriptions  of  per- 
sons and  of  places,  terse  comments  upon  current  events, 
and  short  discussions  on  isolated  phases  of  political  and 
social  questions.  A  single  paragraph,  which  in  itself  gives 
an  adequate  treatment  of  any  subject  or  of  a  single  phase 
of  any  subject,  we  will  call  an  isolated  paragraph. 

Both  classes  of  paragraphs  are  units  of  discourse,  though  in  slightly  different  senses. 
An  isolated  paragraph,  standing  by  itself  and  existing  for  itself  is  an  independent  unit, 
whereas  related  paragraphs,  existing  as  portions  of  a  larger  whole,  are  dependent  or 
subordinate  units. 


Introductory.  3 

The  quotation  from  Hamerton,  on  page  1,  illustrates 
related  paragraphs,  treating  two  phases  of  a  single  idea. 
The  topic  in  the  outline  treated  by  the  first  of  these  para- 
graphs is,  "  Society  is  frivolous  as  a  whole  " ;  that  treated 
by  the  second  is,  "  But  society  contains  individuals  who  are 
not  frivolous."  These  paragraphs  are  so  closely  related, 
in  thought,  that  each  is  necessary  to  the  other ;  but  each 
represents  a  distinct  phase  of  the  thought. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of  isolated  paragraphs. 
In  these  cases  the  treatment  is  sufficiently  complete  and 
adequate  in  a  single  paragraph :  — 

Not  many  years  ago  two  women  in  this  country,  one  in  Boston  and 
one  in  New  York,  became  successful  swindlers  by  simply  promising 
excessive  rates  of  interest  on  money  deposited  in  their  hands.  They 
offered  not  the  slightest  security,  and  their  success  was  due  simply  to 
the  desire  for  inordinate  returns  on  money.  Some  women  in  the 
island  of  Malta  have  done  still  better.  A  charwoman  offered  to 
receive  deposits  and  pay  a  shilling  a  week  per  pound  as  interest,  or 
about  two  hundred  and  sixty  per  cent  per  year.  The  money  and 
valuables  deposited  in  her  hands,  of  course,  became  capital  from 
which,  for  a  time,  she  was  able  to  pay  her  interest,  and  her  business 
was  so  immediately  successful  that  other  women  started  in,  with  the 
result  of  setting  in  motion  a  mania,  the  Maltese  of  all  classes  seem- 
ing to  be  possessed  of  a  desire  to  put  deposits  in  the  hands  of  these 
women,  until  the  amount  in  their  keeping  exceeded  half  a  million 
dollars.  For  a  time  all  went  well,  but  presently  there  was  a  default 
and  the  bubble  burst,  leaving  not  a  rack  behind  except  a  few  pawn- 
tickets.  The  singular  thing  about  this  performance  was  the  fact  that 
everybody  knew  the  women  to  be  living  in  poverty,  and  some  of  them 
in  squalor,  and  yet  nobody  seemed  to  hesitate  to  put  valuables  into 
their  keeping.  Evidently  the  desire  to  make  money  rapidly  is  not 
confined  to  the  American  genus.  —  Christian  Union,  19  Nov.,  1892. 

Lowell's  legacy  as  a  poet  is  great,  but  not  greater  than  his  legacy 
as  a  patriot.  The  true  patriot  does  not  love  his  country,  labor  and 
suffer  for  it,  simply  because  he  happened  to  be  born  in  it,  —  that 
would  be  the  infatuation  of  the  egotist ;  but  because,  being  born  in  it, 
his  duty  and  pleasure  are  to  help  on  all  human  progress  by  helping 
on  first  the  progress  of  the  land  to  which  he  belongs.  This  is  Lowell's 


4  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

legacy  as  a  patriot,  —  not  the  sentiment  uMy  country,  right  or 
wrong,"  but  "My  country  —  it  shall  never  be  wrong  if  I  can  help 
it !  "  The  true  patriot  is  not  the  one  who  says  it  is  my  country,  and 
its  institutions,  that  are  sacred;  but  who  says,  with  Lowell,  "It  is 
Man  who  is  sacred."  The  citizen  who  holds  to  this  sacredness  of 
humanity  will  be  the  most  useful  in  securing  institutions  and  a  coun- 
try whose  services  to  humanity  will  make  them  also  sacred  in  his  own 
heart,  and  in  the  hearts  of  all  good  men. — Century ',  43 :  150. 


(c)  GENERAL  LAWS  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 

As  a  unit  of  discourse,  every  paragraph,  whether  related 
or  isolated,  is  subject  to  the  general  laws  of  unity,  selection, 
proportion,  sequence,  and  variety,  which  govern  all  good 
'  composition. 


(1)    Unity. 

The  most  important  of  these  is  the  law  of  unity,  which 
('requires  that  the   sentences  composing  the  paragraph  be 
\  intimately  connected  with  one  another  in  thought  and  pur- 
'pose.     The  fundamental  idea  of  the  paragraph  is  oneness 
of  aim  and  end  in  all  of  its  parts.     Unity  is  violated,  there- 
fore, when  any  sentence  is  admitted  as  a  part,  which  does 
not  clearly  contribute  its  share  of  meaning  towards  the 
object  for  which  the  paragraph  is  written.     Unity  forbids 
digressions  and  irrelevant  matter.     The  most  common  vio- 
lation of  unity  is  including  matter  in  one  paragraph  which 
should  either  be  taken  out  and  made  a  separate  paragraph 
by  itself  or  be  dropped  altogether. 

The  following  paragraph  from  Dryden,  on  Translation, 
will  serve  to  illustrate  how  unity  is  frequently  violated  :  — 

(1)  Translation  is  a  kind  of  drawing  after  the  life  ;  where  every 
one  will  acknowledge  there  is  a  double  sort  of  likeness,  a  good  one 
and  a  bad.  It  is  one  thing  to  draw  the  outlines  true,  the  features 
like,  the  proportions  exact,  the  colouring  itself  perhaps  tolerable  ;  and 


Introductory.  5 

another  thing  to  make  all  these  graceful,  by  the  posture,  the  shadow- 
ings,  and  chiefly  by  the  spirit  which  animates  the  whole.  (2)  I  can- 
not, without  some  indignation,  look  on  an  ill  copy  of  an  excellent 
original ;  much  less  can  I  behold  with  patience  Virgil,  Homer,  and 
some  others,  whose  beauties  I  have  been  endeavouring  all  my  life  to 
imitate,  so  abused,  as  I  may  say,  to  their  faces  by  a  botching  inter- 
preter. What  English  readers,  unacquainted  with  Greek  or  Latin, 
will  believe  me  or  any  other  man,  when  we  commend  these  authors, 
and  confess,  we  derive  all  that  is  pardonable  in  us  from  their  foun- 
tains, if  they  take  those  to  be  the  same  poets  whom  our  Oglevies  have 
translated  ?  But  I  dare  assure  them  that  a  good  poet  is  no  more  like 
himself  in  £  dull  translation,  than  his  carcase  would  be  to  his  living 
body.  (3)  There  are  many  who  understand  Greek  and  Latin  and  yet 
are  ignorant  of  their  mother  tongue.  The  proprieties  and  delicacies 
of  the  English  are  known  to  few ;  it  is  impossible  even  for  a  good  wit 
to  understand  and  practise  them  without  the  help  of  a  liberal  educa- 
tion, long  reading  and  digesting  of  those  few  good  authors  we  have 
amongst  us ;  the  knowledge  of  men  and  manners,  the  freedom  of 
habitudes  and  conversation  with  the  best  company  of  both  sexes; 
and,  in  short,  without  wearing  off  the  rust  which  he  contracted  while 
he  was  laying  in  a  stock  of  learning.  Thus  difficult  it  is  to  under- 
stand the  purity  of  English,  and  critically  to  discern,  not  only  good 
writers  from  bad,  and  a  proper  style  from  a  corrupt,  but  also  to  dis- 
tinguish that  which  is  pure  in  a  good  author  from  that  which  is  vicious 
and  corrupt  in  him.  And  for  want  of  all  these  requisites,  or  the 
greatest  part  of  them,  most  of  our  ingenious  young  men  take  up  some 
cried-up  English  poet  for  their  model ;  adore  him,  and  imitate  him, 
as  they  think,  without  knowing  wherein  he  is  defective,  where  he  is 
boyish  and  trifling,  wherein  either  his  thoughts  are  improper  to  his 
subject,  or  his  expressions  unworthy  of  his  thoughts,  or  the  turn  of 
both  is  unharmonious. 


The  section  of  this  paragraph  marked  (2)  is  an  expression  of  Dryden's  personal  feel- 
ings towards  bad  translations,  and  shows  no  connection  with  what  precedes  in  the  sec- 
tion marked  (1),  which  states  the  nature  and  difficulties  of  translation.  Section  (2) 
should  either  be  omitted  entirely  or  be  taken  out  and  made  into  a  separate  paragraph, 
prefaced,  as  Bain  suggests  (Rhetoric,  Part  1.  p.  113),  by  some  such  statement  as  this : 
"A  good  original  must  not  be  judged  by  an  ill  copy."  Section  (3)  would,  in  the  latter 
case,  also  become  a  separate  paragraph,  prefaced  by  some  such  statement  as  this : 
"  That  good  translations  are  few  is  not  to  be  wondered  at.  For  a  good  translation  two 
things  are  required  :  a  knowledge  of  English,  as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  original." 
The  order  of  the  paragraphs  would  then  be  (1),  (3),  (2).  If  section  (2)  were  omitted 
entirely,  section  (3)  might  be  unified  with  section  (1)  by  prefacing  (3)  with  the  single 


6  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

sentence:  "For  a  good  translation  two  things  are  required:  a  knowledge  of  English, 
as  well  as  a  knowledge  of  the  original."  The  changes  suggested  here  in  the  order  of 
sentences  illustrate  also  the  law  of  sequence  (the  fourth  law  of  the  paragraph). 

Good  examples  of  paragraphs  possessing  unity  will  be 
seen  in  the  quotation  from  Hamerton,  already  given,  and 
in  the  quotations  from  Emerson's  Essay  on  Art  (see  Pro- 
portion), from  Macaulay's  Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham, 
in  the  quotation  from  Dr.  Johnson  (see  Sequence),  and  in 
the  descriptive  paragraph  quoted  in  illustration  of  the  next 
law  (see  Selection). 

In  the  following  from  Ruskin,  unity  is  secured  by  the 
figure  of  speech  which  runs  through  the  whole  paragraph :  — 

Mountains  are  to  the  rest  of  the  body  of  the  earth  what  violent 
muscular  action  is  to  the  body  of  man.  The  muscles  and  tendons  of 
its  anatomy  are,  in  the  mountain,  brought  out  with  fierce  and  con- 
vulsive energy,  fullv  of  expression,  passion,  and  strength ;  the  plains 
and  the  lower  hills  are  the  repose  and  the  effortless  motion  of  the 
frame,  when  its  muscles  lie  dormant  and  concealed  beneath  the  lines 
of  its  beauty,  yet  ruling  those  lines  in  their  every  undulation.  This, 
tlren,  is  the  first  grand  principle  of  the  truth  of  the  earth.  The  spirit 
of  the  hills  is  action  ;  that  of  the  lowlands,  repose  ;  and  between  these 
there  is  to  be  found  every  variety  of  motion  and  of  rest ;  from  the 
inactive  plain,  sleeping  like  the  firmament,  with  cities  for  stars,  to  the 
fiery  peaks,  which,  with  heaving  bosoms  and  exulting  limbs,  with 
the  clouds  drifting  like  hair  from  their  bright  foreheads,  lift  up  their 
Titan  hands  to  Heaven,  saying,  "  I  live  forever  !  "  — Modern  Painters, 
Vol.  I.  pt.  ii.  sec.  iv.  chap.  i. 

Paragraphs  for  criticism  by  the  student  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  1. 


(2)  Selection. 

The  law  of  selection  requires  that  of  all  which  might  be 
said  on  the  subject  treated,  only  those  points  be  chosen  for 
mention  in  the  sentences  which  will  best  subserve  the  pur- 
pose of  the  paragraph  and  will  give  force  and  distinction  to 
its  main  idea.  In  narrative  or  descriptive  paragraphs,  a 


Introductory.  7 

few  well-chosen  points  will  usually  serve  better  than  the 
mention  of  many  minute  and  unimportant  particulars. 
What  to  omit  is  here  the  important  question  for  the  writer. 
The  effort  to  make  the  narrative  or  description  complete 
even  to  the  smallest  details  frequently  renders  the  account 
obscure.  There  is  less  danger  of  this  in  paragraphs  of  an 
expository  or  argumentative  character.  In  these,  violations 
of  this  law  more  often  arise  from  selecting  remote  and 
inapplicable  figures  of  speech  and  far-fetched  and  mislead- 
ing contrasts. 

The  following  quotation  contains  two  such  contrasts,  so 
far-fetched  and  inapplicable  to  the  subject  that  their  force 
is  lost,  to  most  readers.  They  are  here  printed  in  italics  :  — 

Ordinary  criminal  justice  knows  nothing  of  set-off.  The  greatest 
desert  cannot  be  pleaded  in  answer  to  a  charge  of  the  slightest  trans- 
gression. If  a  man  has  sold  beer  on  Sunday  morning,  it  is  no  defence 
that  he  has  saved  the  life  of  a  fellow-creature  at  the  risk  of  his  own. 
If  he  has  harnessed  a  Newfoundland  dog  to  his  little  child's  carriage, 
it  is  no  defense  that  he  was  wounded  at  Waterloo.  —  Macaulay  :  Lord 
Clive. 

Some  more  obvious  '  transgression  '  than  *  harnessing  a  Newfoundland  dog  to  his 
little  child's  carriage,'  (it  will  occur  to  most  readers,)  ought  to  have  been  cited,  in  order 
to  justify  the  extraordinary  method  of  defense  suggested  —  that  of  exposing  the  wounds 
the  prisoner  received  at  Waterloo.  The  very  wideness  from  each  other  of  the  things 
selected  for  contrast  defeats  the  writer's  purpose.  This  is  a  charge,  however,  that  can- 
not often  be  brought  against  Macaulay.  His  paragraphs  are,  in  general,  models  of  struc- 
ture, unity,  and  force. 

De  Quincey,  especially  when  he  tries  to  be  humorous, 
often  suffers  from  what  may  be  called  a  temporary 
paralysis  of  the  selective  faculty.  In  the  following 
example,  if  the  subject  of  the  paragraph  is  '  The  Hebrew 
Source  of  Mendelssohn's  Music/  the  portions  in  italics  are 
not  happily  chosen. 

It  strikes  me  that  I  see  the  source  of  this  music.  We  that  were 
learning  German  some  thirty  years  ago  must  remember  the  noise  made 
at  that  time  about  Mendelssohn,  the  Platonic  philosopher.  And  why  f 


8  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Was  there  anything  particular  in  "  Der  Phcedon  "  on  the  immortality 
of  the  soul  ?  Not  at  all  ;  it  left  us  quite  as  mortal  as  it  found  us  ; 
and  it  has  long  since  been  found  mortal  itself.  Its  venerable  remains 
are  still  to  be  met  with  in  many  worm-eaten  trunks,  pasted  on  the  lids 
of  which  I  have  myself  perused  a  matter  of  thirty  pages,  except  for  a 
part  that  had  been  too  closely  perused  by  worms.  But  the  key  to  all 
the  popularity  of  the  Platonic  Mendelssohn  is  to  be  sought  in  the  whim- 
sical nature  of  German  liberality,  —  which,  in  those  days,  forced  Jews 
into  paying  toll  at  the  gates  of  cities,  under  the  title  of  "swine,"  but 
caressed  their  infidel  philosophers.  Now,  in  this  category  of  Jew  and 
infidel  stood  the  author  of  "  Phsedon."  He  was  certainly  liable  to  toll 
as  a  hog  ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he  was  much  admired  as  one  who 
despised  the  Pentateuch.  Now,  that  Mendelssohn,  whose  learned 
labours  lined  our  trunks,  was  the  father  of  this  Mendelssohn,  whose 
Greek  music  afflicts  our  ears.  Naturally,  then,  it  strikes  me  that,  as 
"papa"  Mendelssohn  attended  the  synagogue  to  save  appearances, 
the  filial  Mendelssohn  would  also  attend  it.  I  likewise  attended  the 
synagogue  now  and  then  at  Liverpool  and  elsewhere.  We  all  three 
have  been  cruising  in  the  same  latitudes  ;  and,  trusting  to  my  own 
remembrances,  I  should  pronounce  that  Mendelssohn  has  stolen  his 
Greek  music  from  the  synagogue.  There  was,  in  the  first  chorus  of 
the  "  Antigone,"  one  sublime  ascent  (and  once  repeated)  that  rang  to 
heaven  :  it  might  have  entered  into  the  music  of  Jubal's  lyre,  or  have 
glorified  the  timbrel  of  Miriam.  All  the  rest,  tried  by  the  deep 
standard  of  my  own  feeling,  —  that  clamours  for  the  impassioned  in 
music,  even  as  the  daughter  of  the  horse-leech  says,  "  Give,  give,"  — 
is  as  much  without  meaning  as  most  of  the  Hebrew  chanting  that  I 
heard  at  the  Liverpool  synagogue.  I  advise  Mr.  Murray,  in  the  event 
of  his  ever  reviving  the  "Antigone,"  to  make  the  chorus  sing  the 
Hundredth  Psalm  rather  than  Mendelssohn's  music,  or,  which  would 
be  better  still,  to  import  from  Lancashire  the  Handel  chorus-singers.  — 
De  Quincey  :  The  Antigone  of  Sophocles. 

What  connection  is  there,  in  the  following,  between  the 
anecdote  of  Lord  Nelson  and  the  remainder  of  the  para- 
graph ? 

During  pedestrian  tours  in  New  England,  in  various  parts  of  the 
West,  and  in  every  Southern  State,  I  have  frequently  stayed  for  the 
night  at  the  houses  of  poor  farmers,  laborers,  fishermen,  and  trappers. 
In  such  journeys  I  have  invariably  listened  to  the  tales  of  the  neigh- 


Introductory.  9 

borhood,  stimulating  them  by  suggestion,  and  have  found  the  belief 
in  witchcraft  cropping  out  in  the  oldest  towns  in  New  England,  some- 
times within  the  very  shadow  of  the  buildings  where  a  learned  minis- 
try has  existed  from  the  settlement  of  the  country,  and  public  schools 
have  furnished  means  of  education  to  all  classes.  The  horsehoes  seen 
in  nearly  every  county,  and  often  in  every  township,  upon  the  houses 
of  persons,  suggested  the  old  horseshoe  beneath  which  Lord  Nelson, 
who  had  long  kept  it  nailed  to  the  mast  of  the  Victory,  received  his 
death-wound  at  Trafalgar.  —  J.  M.  Buckley :  "  Witchcraft,"  in  Cen- 
tury, 21 :  409. 

In  the  following  paragraph,  no  principle  or  purpose 
seems  to  have  guided  the  selection  of  the  ideas  ;  they  ?re 
set  down  just  as  they  came,  by  chance,  into  the  writer's 
head :  — 

As  for  Charles  Cotton,  his  "  Virgil  Travesty,"  is  deader  than  Scar- 
ron's,  and  deserves  to  be  so.  The  famous  lines  which  Lamb  has  made 
known  to  every  one  in  the  essay  on  "  New  Year's  Day,"  are  the  best 
thing  he  did.  But  there  are  many  excellent  things  scattered  about  his 
work,  despite  a  strong  taint  of  the  mere  coarseness  and  nastiness 
which  have  been  spoken  of.  And  though  he  was  also  much  tainted 
with  the  hopeless  indifference  to  prosody  which  distinguished  all  these 
belated  cavaliers,  it  is  noteworthy  that  he  was  one  of  the  few  English- 
men for  centuries  to  adopt  the  strict  French  forms  and  write  rondeaux 
and  the  like.  On  the  whole,  his  poetical  power  has  been  a  little  under- 
valued, while  he  was  also  dexterous  in  prose.  —  Saints  bury :  Eliza- 
bethan Literature,  p.  385. 

In  the  following  description,  notice  that  the  points  se- 
lected for  mention  are  few  in  number  and  are  all  chosen 
with  the  single  purpose  of  bringing  out  the  idea  of  great 
wealth :  — 

Of  the  provinces  which  had  been  subject  to  the  house  of  Tamerlane, 
the  wealthiest  was  Bengal.  No  part  of  India  possessed  such  natural 
advantages  both  for  agriculture  and  for  commerce.  The  Ganges,  rush- 
ing through  a  hundred  channels  to  the  sea,  has  formed  a  vast  plain  of 
rich  mould  which,  even  under  the  tropical  sky,  rivals  the  verdure  of 
an  English  April.  The  ricefields  yield  an  increase  such  as  is  elsewhere 
unknown.  Spices,  sugar,  vegetable  oils,  are  produced  with  marvelous 
exuberance.  The  rivers  afford  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  fish.  The 


10  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

desolate  islands  along  the  sea-coast,  overgrown  by  noxious  vegetation, 
and  swarming  with  deer  and  tigers,  supply  the  cultivated  districts 
with  abundance  of  salt.  The  great  stream  which  fertilizes  the  soil  is, 
at  the  same  time,  the  chief  highway  of  Eastern  commerce.  On  its 
banks,  and  on  those  of  its  tributary  waters,  are  the  wealthiest  marts, 
the  most  splendid  capitals,  and  the  most  sacred  shrines  of  India.  The 
tyranny  of  man  had  for  ages  struggled  in  vain  against  the  overflowing 
bounty  of  nature.  In  spite  of  the  Mussulman  despot  and  of  the 
Mahratta  freebooter,  Bengal  was  known  through  the  East  as  the 
Garden  of  Eden,  as  the  rich  kingdom.  Its  population  multiplied 
exceedingly.  Distant  provinces  were  nourished  from  the  overflowing 
of  its  granaries ;  and  the  noble  ladies  of  London  and  Paris  were 
clothed  in  the  delicate  produce  of  its  looms.  —  Macaulay  :  Lord  Olive, 
p.  51. 

Paragraphs  for  criticism  by  the  student  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  1. 

(3)    Proportion. 

The  law  of  proportion  requires,  first,  that  enough  be  said 
to  exhibit  fully  the  purpose  and  idea  of  the  paragraph. 
Paragraphs  will,  therefore,  differ  in  length  according  to  the 
importance  and  scope  of  the  ideas  they  present.  No  arbi- 
trary rules  can  be  given  as  to  the  proper  length  of  para- 
graphs. Observing  the  custom  of  some  of  our  best  writers, 
we  may  safely  say  that  it  is  not  well  to  extend  a  single 
paragraph  beyond  three  hundred  words.  The  advantage 
of  at  least  one  paragraph-indention  on  almost  every  page 
of  a  printed  book  is  felt  by  every  reader.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  Professor  Earle  says  (English  Prose,  p.  212), 
"The  term  paragraph  can  hardly  be  applied  to  anything 
short  of  three  sentences,"  though  skilful  writers  sometimes 
make  a  paragraph  of  two  sentences,  or  even  of  one. 

This  law  requires,  secondly,  that  the  details  which  make 
up  the  paragraph  be  treated  and  amplified  in  proportion  to 
their  respective  importance  to  the  main  idea  and  purpose 
of  the  paragraph.  Subordinate  ideas  and  subsidiary  details 
should  be  kept  subordinate  and  subsidiary. 


Introductory.  11 

Thirdly,  over-amplification  and  too  extensive  illustration 
of  a  simple  statement  admitted  by  every  one,  are  violations 
of  the  law  of  proportion. 

In  illustration  of  the  first  requirement  of  this  rule,  con- 
trast the  two  paragraphs  that  follow.  In  the  first,  the  main 
thought  is  found  in  the  words,  "  A  man  is  a  fagot  of  thun- 
derbolts," and  "  We  only  believe  as  deep  as  we  live."  This 
thought  is  not  sufficiently  illustrated  for  the  general  reader, 
and  what  is  said  by  way  of  explanation  is  as  indefinite  in 
character  as  the  proposition  it  purports  to  explain.  The 
force  of  the  last  sentence  in  the  quotation  will  hardly  be 
felt  at  the  first  reading,  unless  one  happens  to  emphasize 
the  word  "we."  The  second  paragraph,  from  the  same 
writer,  is  quoted  as  an  illustration  of  the  perfect  fulfil- 
ment of  the  law  of  proportion. 

We  are  just  so  frivolous  and  skeptical.  Men  hold  themselves  cheap 
and  vile  ;  and  yet  a  man  is  a  fagot  of  thunderbolts.  All  the  elements 
pour  through  his  system ;  he  is  the  flood  of  the  flood,  and  fire  of  the 
fire  ;  he  feels  the  antipodes  and  the  pole,  as  drops  of  his  blood  :  they 
are  the  extension  of  his  personality.  His  duties  are  measured  by  that 
instrument  he  is  ;  and  a  right  and  perfect  man  would  be  felt  to  the 
centre  of  the  Copernican  system.  'Tis  curious  that  we  only  believe 
as  deep  as  we  live.  We  do  not  think  heroes  can  exert  any  more 
awful  power  than  that  surface-play  which  amuses  us.  A  deep  man 
believes  in  miracles,  waits  for  them,  believes  in  magic,  believes  that 
the  orator  will  decompose  his  adversary  ;  believes  that  the  evil  eye 
can  wither,  that  the  heart's  blessing  can  heal ;  that  love  can  exalt 
talent ;  can  overcome  all  odds.  From  a  great  heart  secret  magnet- 
isms flow  incessantly  to  draw  great  events.  But  we  prize  very  hum- 
ble utilities,  a  prudent  husband,  a  good  son,  a  voter,  a  citizen,  and 
deprecate  any  romance  of  character  ;  and  perhaps  reckon  only  his 
money  value,  — his  intellect,  his  affection,  as  a  sort  of  bill  of  exchange, 
easily  convertible  into  fine  chambers,  pictures,  music,  and  wine.  — 
Emerson  :  Essay  on  Beauty. 

The  artist  who  is  to  produce  a  work  which  is  to  be  admired,  not  by 
his  friends  or  his  townspeople  or  his  contemporaries,  but  by  all  men, 
and  which  is  to  be  more  beautiful  to  the  eye  in  proportion  to  its  cul- 
ture, must  disindividualize  himself,  and  be  a  man  of  no  party,  and  no 


12  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

manner,  and  no  age,  but  one  through  whom  the  soul  of  all  men  circu- 
lates, as  the  common  air  through  his  lungs.  He  must  work  in  the 
spirit  in  which  we  conceive  a  prophet  to  speak,  or  an  angel  of  the 
Lord  to  act ;  that  is,  he  is  not  to  speak  his  own  words,  or  do  his  own 
works,  or  think  his  own  thoughts,  but  he  is  to  be  an  organ  through 
which  the  universal  mind  acts.  — Emerson :  Essay  on  Art. 

The  two  paragraphs  cited  from  Emerson  are  of  about  equal  difficulty  in  regard  to 
the  thought ;  the  ease  of  comprehension  in  the  -case  of  the  latter  and  the  difficulty  of 
comprehension  in  the  case  of  the  former  are  fairly  attributable  to  the  observance  of  the 
law  of  proportion  in  the  one  and  to  its  neglect  in  the  other. 

The  following  will  illustrate  undue  prominence  given  to 
a  subordinate  idea,  at  the  cost  of  clearness  :  — 

(1)  If  we  would  study  with  profit  the  history  of  our  ancestors,  we 
must  be  constantly  on  our  guard  against  that  delusion  which  the  well- 
known  names  of  families,  places,  and  offices  naturally  produce,  and 
must  never  forget  that  the  country  of  which  we  read  was  a  very  differ- 
ent country  from  tha,t  in  which  we  live.  (2)  In  every  experimental 
science  there  is  a  tendency  towards  perfection.  (3)  In  every  human 
being  there  is  a  wish  to  ameliorate  his  own  condition.  (4)  These 
two  principles  have  often  sufficed,  even  when  counteracted  by  great 
public  calamities  and  by  bad  institutions,  to  carry  civilization  rapidly 
forward.  (5)  No  ordinary  misfortune,  no  ordinary  misgovernment, 
will  do  so  much  to  make  a  nation  wretched,  as  the  constant  progress 
of  physical  knowledge  and  the  constant  effort  of  every  man  to  better 
himself  will  do  to  make  a  nation  prosperous.  [Then  follows  a  page 
showing  the  vast  increase  of  wealth  in  England  during  the  last  six 
centuries  and  the  reasons  for  it.]  (12)  The  consequence  is  that  a 
change  to  which  the  history  of  the  old  world  furnishes  no  parallel  has 
taken  place  in  our  country.  (13)  Could  the  England  of  1685  be,  by 
some  magical  process,  set  before  our  eyes,  we  should  not  know  one 
landscape  in  a  hundred  or  one  building  in  ten  thousand.  [Another 
page  of  details,  similar  to  those  in  the  last  sentence,  follows.  ]  — 
Macaulay  :  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.  chap.  iii. 

The  undue  prominence  given  to  the  second  and  third  sentences,  stated  (as  they  are) 
as  independent  propositions  apparently  of  equal  importance  with  the  first  sentence  and 
illustrated  at  great  length,  occasions  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  as  to  what  is  the 
main  idea  of  the  paragraph  ;  and  it  is  not  until  sentence  (12)  is  reached  that  it  becomes 
evident  that  sentence  (1)  contains,  after  all,  the  main  idea,  and  that  the  ten  sentences 
intervening  are  subordinate  and  are  intended  to  account  for  the  fact  that  "  the  coun- 
try of  which  we  read  was  a  very  different  country  from  that  in  which  we  live."  The 


Introductory.  13 

subordination  might  be  plainly  indicated,  and  all  doubt  of  the  reader  removed,  by  intro- 
ducing immediately  after  sentence  (1)  some  such  statement  as  this  :  "In  the  course  of 
centuries,  vast  differences  are  inevitably  brought  about  in  a  country  by  the  operation  of 
social  principles  alone." 

The  following  paragraph,  which  illustrates  unnecessary 
amplification  of  a  self-evident  proposition,  is  termed  by  the 
writer  of  it  "  a  string  of  platitudes  " :  — 

Lucidity  is  one  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  sanity.  A  sane  man 
ought  not  to  be  unintelligible.  Lucidity  is  good  everywhere,  for  all 
time  and  in  all  things,  in  a  letter,  in  a  speech,  in  a  book,  in  a  poem. 
Lucidity  is  not  simplicity.  A  lucid  poem  is  not  necessarily  an  easy 
one.  A  great  poet  may  tax  our  brains,  but  he  ought  not  to  puzzle 
our  wits.  We  may  often  have  to  ask  in  humility,  What  does  he  mean? 
but  not  in  despair,  What  can  he  mean  ?  —  A.  Birrell :  Obiter  Dicta. 

Paragraphs  for  criticism  by  the  student  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  1. 


(4)    Sequence. 

The  law  of  sequence,  or  method,  requires  that  the  sen- 
tences be  presented  in  the  order  which  will  best  bring  out 
the  thought.  In  narrative  paragraphs  the  order  of  events 
in  time  is  usually  the  best ;  in  descriptions,  the  order  of 
objects  in  space  or  according  to  their  prominence.  In  ex- 
pository or  argumentative  paragraphs,  climax,  or  that  order- 
ing of  sentences  which  proceeds  steadily  from  the  least  to 
the  most  forcible  and  important,  will  sometimes  prove  to  be 
the  best  method.  But  usually,  the  thought  of  each  para- 
graph as  it  develops  will  dictate  the  natural  sequence  of 
the  sentences. 

In  the  following  paragraph,  a  logical  method  is  strictly 
observed,  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  sentences  particular- 
izing the  idea  of  "prerogative,"  and  the  fifth,  sixth,  and 
seventh,  the  idea  of  "purity." 

The  watchwords  of  the  new  government  were  prerogative  and 
purity.  The  sovereign  was  no  longer  to  be  a  puppet  in  the  hands  of 
any  subject,  or  of  any  combination  of  subjects.  George  the  Third 


1 4  Paragrap  h  -  Writing. 

would  not  be  forced  to  take  ministers  whom  he  disliked,  as  his 
grandfather  had  been  forced  to  take  Pitt.  George  the  Third  would 
not  be  forced  to  part  with  any  whom  he  delighted  to  honor,  as  his 
grandfather  had  been  forced  to  part  with  Carteret.  At  the  same  time, 
the  system  of  bribery  which  had  grown  up  during  the  late  reigns  was 
to  cease.  It  was  ostentatiously  proclaimed  that,  since  the  accession  of 
the  young  King,  neither  constituents  nor  representatives  had  been 
bought  with  the  secret  service  money.  To  free  Britain  from  corrup- 
tion and  oligarchical  cabals,  to  detach  her  from  continental  connec- 
tions, to  bring  the  bloody  and  expensive  war  with  France  and  Spain 
to  a  close,  such  were  the  specious  objects  which  Bute  professed  to 
procure.  —  Macaulay  :  Second  Essay  on  the  Earl  of  Chatham,  p.  40. 

The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  the  order  of  climax. 
The  clauses  of  the  last  sentence  grow  in  length,  power,  and 
in  volume  both  of  sound  and  of  idea  until  the  end  is  reached 
in  the  strongest  words. 

The  great  wheel  of  political  revolution  began  to  move  in  America. 
Here  its  rotation  was  guarded,  regular  and  safe.  Transferred  to  the 
other  continent,  from  unfortunate  but  natural  causes,  it  received  an 
irregular  and  violent  impulse  ;  it  whirled  along  with  a  fearful  celerity  ; 
till  at  length,  like  the  chariot  wheels  in  the  races  of  antiquity,  it  took 
fire  from  the  rapidity  of  its  own  motion,  and  blazed  onward,  spread- 
ing conflagration  and  terror  around.  —  Webster :  First  Bunker  Hill 
Oration. 

The  first  of  the  two  paragraphs  which  follow  illustrates 
in  the  last  three  sentences,  what  may  be  called  the  alter- 
nating method,  in  which  the  main  idea  (that  of  "  sublimity") 
occurs,  under  different  forms  of  expression,  in  every  sen- 
tence, accompanied  in  each  case  by  the  statement  of  some 
other  characteristic  of  Milton's  style,  of  lesser  importance. 
The  three  lesser  qualities  mentioned  are  arranged  in  the 
order  of  climax.  The  second  of  these  two  paragraphs  is 
quoted  for  the  sake  of  completeness. 

He  had  considered  creation  in  its  whole  extent,  and  his  descriptions 
are  therefore  learned.  He  had  accustomed  his  imagination  to  unre- 
strained indulgence,  and  his  conceptions  therefore  were  extensive. 


Introductory.  15 

The  characteristic  quality  of  his  poem  is  sublimity.  He  sometimes 
descends  to  the  elegant,  but  his  element  is  the  great.  He  can  occa- 
sionally invest  himself  with  grace ;  but  his  natural  port  is  gigantic 
loftiness.  He  can  please  when  pleasure  is  required  ;  but  it  is  his  pecu- 
liar power  to  astonish. 

He  seems  to  have  been  well  acquainted  with  his  own  genius,  and 
to  know  what  it  was  that  nature  had  bestowed  upon  him  more  bounti- 
fully than  upon  others ;  the  power  of  displaying  the  vast,  illuminating 
the  splendid,  enforcing  the  awful,  darkening  the  gloomy,  and  aggra- 
vating the  dreadful ;  he  therefore  chose  a  subject  on  which  too  much 
could  not  be  said,  on  which  he  might  tire  his  fancy  without  the  cen- 
sure of  extravagance.  —  Johnson:  Life  of  Milton  (M.  Arnold's  Chief 
Lives,  p.  51). 

In  the  last  paragraph,  just  quoted,  the  logical  method  is  (1)  Milton's  knowledge  of 
the  character  of  his  own  genius,  (2)  what  that  character  was,  (3)  result  of  this  knowledge 
on  his  choice  of  a  subject. 

Paragraphs  for  criticism  by  the  student  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  1. 


(5)    Variety. 

The  law  of  variety  requires  that  as  much  diversity  as  is ;, 
consistent  with  the  purpose  of  the  paragraph  be  introduced. 
Variety  will  appear  in  length  of  sentences,  in  their  struc- 
ture, in  phraseology,  in  the  ordering  of  details,  and  in  the 
method  of  building  different  paragraphs.  Variety  in  the 
length  of  different  paragraphs  as  well  as  in  their  structure 
is  also  desirable. 

To  illustrate  fully  this  important  law  is  obviously  impossible.  Let  the  student  note 
carefully  the  paragraphs  already  quoted  : 

First,  as  to  length  of  sentences.  The  use  of  both  long  and  short  sentences  will  be 
noticed  as  helpful  in  sustaining  the  reader's  interest.  Observe  the  forceful  but  curt 
and  choppy  effect  of  the  almost  exclusive  use  of  short  sentences  in  the  first  quotation 
from  Emerson  ;  equal  length  giving  all  of  the  sentences  equal  prominence,  thus  making 
the  main  idea  harder  to  find.  In  the  other  quotations,  note  that  one  use  of  the  short 
sentence  is  to  state  forcibly  the  main  thought  in  brief,  the*  longer  sentences  being 
devoted  to  explanations  or  details.  Point  out  instances  of  this,  especially  in  the  quota- 
tion from  Dryden.  Observe  also  the  smooth  effect  of  the  long  sentences.  It  is  the 
character  of  the  thought  of  the  paragraph  that  decides  in  many  cases  whether  the 
sentence  shall  be  long  or  short.  Point  this  out  in  the  quotations  from  the  Christian 
Union,  Emerson,  Macaulay,  and  Webster. 

Secondly,  as  to  structure  of  sentences.  Point  out  the  various  ways  in  which  the 
sentences  of  these  quotations  begin,  Is  the  subject  introduced  first  in  all  cases  ? 


1 6  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Notice  the  relief,  experienced  in  reading  Emerson's  first  paragraph  after  several  short 
sentences  constructed  alike,  by  the  slight  change  of  structure  in  the  seventh  sentence 
beginning,  "From  a  great  heart,"  etc.  Find  examples  of  sentences,  in  these  quota- 
tions, in  which  the  full  idea  is  not  apparent  until  the  close  of  the  sentence  is  reached 
(Periodic  structure).  Notice  in  the  conversational  paragraphs  of  the  first  quotation 
examples  of  loose  structure,  in  which  the  sentence  might  come  to  a  full  stop  before 
the  close,  and  still  make  sense.  Find  other  examples  of  this.  Find  examples  of 
balanced  structure,  in  which  the  different  elements  of  a  sentence  are  made  to  answer 
to  each  other  and  set  each  other  off  by  similarity  of  form  ;  especially  in  the  quotations 
from  Macaulay,  Dryden,  Johnson,  and  Emerson.  Find  examples  in  which  whole  sen- 
tences have  this  similarity  of  form  and  answer  to  each  other.  Do  the  complex  sentences 
usually  contain  the  main  idea  of  these  paragraphs  ?  Note  that  it  is  the  nature  of  the 
thought  which  makes  some  of  the  sentences  interrogative  and  which  causes  other 
departures  from  the  usual  form  of  sentence  structure.  Find  examples  of  this. 

Thirdly,  as  to  phraseology.  Notice,  first,  variety  in  the  words  used  for  expressing 
the  same  idea  in  a  paragraph.  What  words  in  the  quotation  from  Hamerton  bring  out 
the  idea  of  "  frivolous  "  ?  What,  in  the  quotation  from  the  Christian  Union  the  idea  of 
"swindling"  ?  What,  in  the  second  quotation  from  Emerson,  the  idea  of  "disindivid- 
ualize"  ?  What,  in  the  next  quotation  (from  Macaulay),  the  idea  of  "difference  and 
change"?  What,  in  the  quotation  from  Dr.  Johnson,  the  idea  of  "sublimity"? 
Notice,  next,  the  variety  in  the  relation-words  (of,  by,  to,  from,  for,  etc.)  which  intro- 
duce different  phrases.  The  value  to  a  writer  of  having  a  large  stock  of  expedients  for 
securing  variety  in  introducing  phrases,  is  very  great.  Some  writers  over-work  the 
relation-word  "  of,"  when,*  by  a  slight  modification  in  phrase-structure,  other  relation- 
words  might  be  used  instead  and  the  sentence  improved.  For  practice  try  the  plan 
of  substituting  adjectives  for  some  of  the  phrases  in  the  quoted  paragraphs  on  the 
preceding  pages.  Notice  that  such  substitutions  often  compel  remodeling  the  whole 
sentence. 

Fourthly,  as  to  ordering  of  details  and  method  of  building  different  paragraphs. 
These  subjects  will  be  considered  more  fully  at  a  later  stage  of  our  study.  At  present, 
notice  the  variety  in  method  of  presenting  the  various  details  in  Macaulay 's  descriptive 
paragraph.  (See  Selection.)  Do  you  find  anything  to  criticise  in  the  order  of  the 
sentences  ?  Notice  also  the  ordering  of  details  in  the  paragraph  from  Euskin.  (See 
Unity.) 

For  practice  in  securing  variety,  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  Appendices  A  and  B 
should  be  re-written  by  the  student  in  his  own  words,  changing  the  phraseology  and 
constructions,  but  preserving  the  sense. 

It  will  be  found  in  practice  that  the  close  observance  of 
any  one  of  the  general  laws,  unity,  selection,  proportion, 
and  sequence,  will  tend  to  give  a  paragraph  the  qualities 
required  by  the  other  three.  Eor  instance,  the  rearrange- 
ment of  the  order  (method)  of  the  sentences  will  often 
secure  unity  to  a  paragraph  which  seemed  without  unity. 
The  law  of  unity  understood  in  a  large  sense  would  include 
selection,  proportion,  and  sequence.  These,  however,  have 
been  deemed  worthy  of  study  by  themselves.  A  good 


Introductory.  17 

maxim,  summing  up  these  laws,  is,  In  writing  paragraphs, 
aim  at  unity  of  thought  and  variety  of  statement. 

Paragraphs  for  further  criticism  by  the  student  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  1. 


(d)  APPLICATION  OF  THESE  LAWS  IN  CHOICE  OF  PARA- 
GRAPH SUBJECT. 

The  observance  of  these  laws  will  be  made  less  difficult 
for  the  writer,  if,  in  selecting  subjects  for  isolated  para- 
graphs and  in  selecting  subdivisions  of  the  essay  that  will 
serve  for  paragraph-subjects,  he  is  careful  to  see  that  the 
idea  chosen  is  sufficiently  narrowed  in  scope.  An  idea  may 
be  narrowed  by  imposing  upon  it  successive  conditions  and 
limitations  of  time,  place,  point  of  view,  etc. 

To  illustrate  :  General  subject  —  "The  Study  of  Latin." 
Subject  limited  to  a  single  point  of  view  —  "  Uses  of  Latin 
study."  Limited  further,  as  to  place  — "  Uses  of  Latin 
study  to  American  students."  Limited  further,  as  to 
time  —  "  Uses  of  Latin  study  to  American  students  of  the 
present  time"  Limited  further,  by  selection,  to  available 
theme  —  "  Use  of  Latin  study  to  American  students  of  the 
present  time  in  widening  their  English  vocabulary." 

Looking  at  the  illustration  just  given,  the  student  will  see  that  the  general  subject, 
stated  first,  is  too  broad  for  treatment  in  a  paragraph.  It  is,  furthermore,  suggestive 
of  several  lines  of  thought,  any  one  of  which  would  be  sufficient  for  a  paragraph  or  even 
for  a  whole  essay.  Moreover,  it  is  indefinite,  because  it  indicates  no  aim  or  purpose 
on  the  part  of  the  writer.  It  acquires  definiteness,  however,  as  soon  as  the  first  limita- 
tion imposed  upon  it  converts  the  general  subject  into  a  theme.  With  each  subsequent 
limitation  this  theme  grows  in  concreteness,  indicating  each  time  a  narrower  scope,  a 
closer  scrutiny,  and  a  more  definite  aim  on  the  part  of  the  writer. 

The  general  subject  is  the  broad  statement  of  a  general 
idea  without  limitation.  The  theme  is  the  general  subject 
narrowed  in  scope  and  made  definite  by  limitation,  so  as  to 
show  the  purpose  of  the  writer.  The  full  statement  of  the 
theme  is  often  long  and  unattractive  in  form,  and  may 
often  be  re-stated  in  a  briefer  and  more  attractive  form. 
It  is  then  called  a  title.  A  briefer  statement  of  the  theme 


18  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

in  the  illustration  above,  to  be  used  as  a  paragraph-title, 
might  be,  "One  Reason  for  Studying  Latin."  The  title 
should  be  suggestive  of  the  theme,  but  should  not  over- 
state the  theme.  Most  themes  may  be  used  as  titles  with- 
out re-statement. 

Examples  of  paragraph -titles  may  be  found  in  the  newspapers  and  in  the  marginal 
notes  of  such  books  as  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  Gardiner's  Thirty  Years9  War, 
Bryce's  Holy  Roman  Empire,  CreightorTs  Age  of  Elizabeth,  and  Hallam's  Works. 
The  shorter  isolated  paragraphs  to  be  found  in  the  editorial  columns  of  the  newspapers 
and  the  related  paragraphs  of  most  books  are  usually  printed  without  titles. 

In  Appendix  A  2  will  be  found  a  list  of  general  subjects  each  of  which  the  student  is 
expected  to  narrow,  by  successive  limitations,  to  an  available  working  theme  and  then 
provide  with  an  appropriate  title.  The  student  may  also  be  given  practice  in  discov- 
ering the  working  theme  of  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B,  and  in  providing  a 
title  for  each. 


THE  ISOLATED  PAEAGEAPH. 

The  isolated  paragraph  was  denned,  in  the  last  chapter, 
as  a  single  paragraph  which  in  itself  gives  an  adequate 
treatment  of  any  subject  or  of  a  single  phase  of  any  sub- 
ject. By  the  expression  "  adequate  treatment "  is  meant, 
not  all  that  might  be  said  on  a  given  subject,  but  enough 
for  the  purpose  in  hand,  whatever  that  may  chance  to  be. 
Adequate  treatment  is  therefore  treatment  sufficiently  com- 
plete for  carrying  out  the  writer's  purpose.  A  paragraph, 
however  short,  which,  when  taken  by  itself,  is  unified  and 
intelligible  and  produces  a  satisfying  effect,  may  (for  pur- 
poses of  study)  be  regarded  as  an  isolated  paragraph,  even 
though  it  form  part  of  an  essay  or  part  of  a  chapter  of  a 
book.  The  following  short  paragraph  taken  from  Thomas 
Carlyle's  James  Garlyle  will  illustrate  this  satisfying  effect, 
this  sense  of  completeness  :  — 

The  first  impulse  of  man  is  to  seek  for  enjoyment.  He  lives  with 
more  or  less  impetuosity,  more  or  less  irregularity,  to  conquer  for 
himself  a  home  and  blessedness  of  a  mere  earthly  kind.  Not  till 
later  (in  how  many  cases  never)  does  he  ascertain  that  on  earth  there 
is  no  such  home :  that  his  true  home  lies  beyond  the  world  of  sense, 
is  a  celestial  home. 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  19 

In  the  present  chapter  we  shall  disregard  those  special  modifications  of  structure 
found  in  related  paragraphs  of  various  kinds  (which  are  treated  in  the  next  chapter)  and 
shall  study  all  the  paragraphs  quoted  in  this  as  independent,  miniature  essays.  Only  by 
such  isolation  and  study  of  the  paragraph  as  a  complete  structure  in  itself  can  the  stu- 
dent be  given  a  sense  for  paragraphic  unity  and  sequence.  This  is,  indeed,  of  practical 
value  in  itself,  since  the  writing  of  single,  unrelated  paragraphs  has  become  a  recognized 
feature  of  newspaper  and  magazine  work. 


1.   PARAGRAPH  SUBJECT. 

Every  paragraph  should  have  a  clearly  defined  idea  to  the 
development  of  which  each  sentence  contributes.  This  idea 
is  usually  expressed  definitely  and  unmistakably  in* one  of  the 
sentences  of  the  paragraph,  called  the  topic-sentence.  The 
topic-sentence  is  generally  most  effective  when  short  and 
striking.  It  is  often  found  to  be,  however,  not  a  whole  sen- 
tence in  itself,  but  only  a  part  of  a  sentence,  what  precedes 
being  obviously  preparatory  to  its  more  forcible  presenta- 
tion. Sometimes  the  topic-sentence  need  not  be  expressed 
definitely.  In  such  a  paragraph  the  topic  is  implied  in  all 
that  is  said.  The  test  of  a  good  paragraph  of  this  kind  is 
the  possibility  of  phrasing  the  main  idea,  which  it  contains, 
in  a  single  sentence.  Whether  expressed  or  implied,  there- 
fore, the  topic-sentence  should  exist  as  a  working  theme  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer  while  constructing  each  sentence, 
and  the  bearing  of  each  sentence  on  the  paragraph-theme 
should  be  clear  and  distinct. 


(a)    WHERE  THE  TOPIC-SENTENCE  SHOULD  BE  PLACED. 
(1)    Stated  First. 

Many  paragraphs  require  a  formal  statement  of  the 
theme.  This  is  usually  true  when  the  paragraph  consists 
of  a  principle  that  is  proved  by  particular  examples,  or 
when  a  general  idea  is  expounded  by  argument,  or  when  a 
formal  proposition  is  treated.  In  such  cases  the  theme  is 


20  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

usually  announced  in  the  first  sentence.     The  following  will 
illustrate :  — 

America  as  a  nation  may  not  be  in  favor  of  burdening  itself  with 
the  care  of  distant  colonies,  but  [Topic-sentence]  individual  American 
enterprise  is  penetrating  to  every  part  of  the  globe.  [Example] 
When  Stanley  was  in  Chicago  he  told  a  group  of  reporters  that  a 
certain  kind  of  cloth,  used  exclusively  among  the  natives  of  Africa, 
was  made  in  New  England.  The  English  have  tried  to  supersede  this 
trade,  but  have  been  unsuccessful.  Nothing  but  the  American  brand 
will  go.  [Example]  The  railroad  through  the  island  of  Jamaica  fur- 
nishes another  example  of  Yankee  enterprise.  It  is  owned  principally 
by  two  rich  New  Yorkers  and  by  Mr.  Eastman,  a  La  Crosse,  Wis., 
millionaire.  —  Chicago  Herald. 

In  the  following  paragraph,  the  topic-sentence  comes  first 
and  is  afterwards  re-stated  in  the  quotation  given  in  the 
fourth  sentence,  as  a  practical  precept. 

The  one  fatal  mistake  which  is  committed  habitually  by  people 
who  have  the  scarcely  desirable  gift  of  half-genius  is  "waiting  for 
inspiration."  They  pass  week  after  week  in  a  state  of  indolence, 
unprofitable  alike  to  the  mind  and  the  purse,  under  pretext  of  waiting 
for  intellectual  flashes  like  those  which  came  to  Napoleon  on  his  battle- 
fields. They  ought  to  remember  the  advice  given  by  one  of  the 
greatest  artists  of  the  seventeenth  century  to  a  young  painter  of  his 
acquaintance.  "Practise  assiduously  what  you  already  know,  and  in 
course  of  time  other  things  will  become  clear  to  you."  The  inspira- 
tions come  only  to  the  disciplined  ;  the  indolent  wait  for  them  in  vain. 
—  Hamerton :  Intellectual  Life,  p.  449. 

Find  paragraphs,  in  Appendix  B,  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  stated  first. 


(2)    Stated  First  and  Last. 

Sometimes,  to  emphasize  the  leading  idea,  the  topic-sen- 
tence is  stated  both  at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  a 
paragraph.  When  the  thought  is  sufficiently  important  to 
justify  such  emphasis,  this  practice  is  commendable,  for 
the  repetition  of  the  subject  at  the  close  completes  the  cir- 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  21 

cuit  of  the  thought  and  gives  the  appearance  of  finished 
roundness  to  the  whole  idea.  This  plan  is  especially  com- 
mendable in  spoken  paragraphs,  the  repetition,  in  this  case, 
being  a  notification  to  the  hearer  that  the  discussion  of  the 
point  in  hand  is  finished.  The  following  will  illustrate 
these  statements :  — 

[Topic-sentence]  The  grand  reason  for  paying  debt  is  that  we 
want  to  strengthen  the  credit  of  the  State  as  the  cheapest  and  best  of  all 
insurances.  [Example]  If  any  one  doubts  that,  let  him  look  at  the 
position  of  the  United  States.  That  grand  republic  has  no  fleet,  and 
on  the  water  could  hardly  fight  Spain  ;  but  she  has  reduced  her  debt 
by  strenuous  paying,  and  every  one  knows  that  if  she  wanted  a  fleet 
to  blow  Spain  out  of  the  water,  or  to  contest  the  seas  with  us,  she 
could  buy  and  complete  one  in  twelve  months.  [Topic  repeated] 
Her  payment  of  her  debt  is  an  insurance,  not  only  against  defeat  but 
against  attack.  —  London  [England]  Spectator. 

I  begin  with  the  postulate,  that  [Topic-sentence]  it  is  the  law  of 
our  nature  to  desire  happiness.  This  law  is  not  local,  but  universal ; 
not  temporary,  but  eternal.  It  is  not  a  law  to  be  proved  by  excep- 
tions, for  it  knows  no  exception.  [Examples]  The  savage  and  the 
martyr  welcome  fierce  pains,  not  because  they  love  pain ;  but  because 
they  love  some  expected  remuneration  of  happiness  so  well,  that  they 
are  willing  to  purchase  it  at  the  price  of  the  pain,  —  at  the  price  of 
imprisonment,  torture,  or  death.  [Another  example]  The  young 
desire  happiness  more  keenly  than  any  others.  This  desire  is  innate, 
spontaneous,  exuberant ;  and  nothing  but  repeated  and  repeated  over- 
flows of  the  lava  of  disappointment  can  burn  or  bury  it  in  the  human 
breast.  On  this  law  of  our  nature,  then,  we  may  stand  as  on  an 
immovable  foundation  of  truth;  Whatever  fortune  may  befall  our 
argument,  our  premises  are  secure.  [Topic  repeated]  The  conscious 
desire  of  happiness  is  active  in  all  men.  —  Horace  Mann :  Thoughts 
for  a  Young  Man,  p.  8. 

Find  paragraphs,  in  Appendix  B,  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  stated  first  and  last. 


(3)    Stated  Last. 

The  details  of  a  paragraph  may,  in  special  cases,  precede 
the  statement  of  the  subject ;  the  proofs  may  be  presented 


22  Paragraph -Writing. 

before  the  proposition  is  stated.  In  such  cases  the  topic- 
sentence  may  be  delayed  until  the  close  of  the  paragraph. 
This  plan  will  usually  be  found  expedient  when  the  thought 
is  not  likely  to  be  favorably  received  if  stated  abruptly  at 
the  beginning,  when  the  topic-sentence  contains  an  unwel- 
come truth,  or  when  some  new  idea  is  presented  to  which  the 
reader  is  not  at  once  prepared  to  assent.  For  example  :  — 

We  have  new  evidence  of  the  treacherous  character  of  the  Sioux 
Indians  in  the  tragedy  at  Wounded  Knee  Creek.  When  their  sur- 
roundings are  considered  their  treachery  is  not  a  subject  for  wonder. 
The  Sioux  lad  is  taught  that  duplicity,  lying,  treachery,  theft,  and 
bloodshed  are  the  manly  attributes.  He  must  be  very  wily  about 
shedding  blood,  but  is  nothing  but  a  "  squaw  "  until  he  has  a  scalp  at 
his  belt.  Then  he  is  fed  by  the  Government,  clothed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, sheltered  by  the  Government  —  that  is,  maintained  in  absolute 
idleness,  while  he  broods  over  real  or  fancied  wrongs.  When  he  gets 
worked  up  to  the  proper  pitch  of  frenzy  he  wants  to  kill  somebody, 
and  generally  does  kill  somebody  if  he  is  not  killed  himself.  It  has 
been  the  Government  policy  to  treat  the  Indian  as  a  spoiled  child 
rather  than  as  the  dangerous  brute  that  he  is.  [Topic-sentence] 
The  events  of  the  present  Indian  outbreak  have  made  it  clear  that 
the  policy  of  gentleness  is  disastrous  both  to  the  country  and  to  the 
Indian.— The  Press  (N.Y.). 

In  the  following  paragraph  the  subject,  while  it  is  hinted 
at  in  the  second  sentence,  is  purposely  denied  full  and 
definite  statement  until  the  very  last  sentence :  — 

I  will  not  ask  your  pardon  for  endeavoring  to  interest  you  in  the 
subject  of  Greek  Mythology  ;  but  I  must  ask  your  permission  to  ap- 
proach it  in  a  temper  differing  from  that  in  which  it  is  frequently 
treated.  We  cannot  justly  interpret  the  religion  of  any  people,  unless 
we  are  prepared  to  admit  that  we  ourselves,  as  well  as  they,  are  liable 
to  error  in  matters  of  faith  ;  and  that  the  convictions  of  others,  how- 
ever singular,  may  in  some  points  have  been  well  founded,  while  our 
own,  however  reasonable,  may  in  some  particulars  be  mistaken.  You 
must  forgive  me,  therefore,  for  not  always  distinctively  calling 
the  creeds  of  the  past  "superstition,"  and  the  creeds  of  the  present 
day  "  religion  "  ;  as  well  as  for  assuming  that  a  faith  now  confessed 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  23 

may  sometimes  be  superficial,  and  that  a  faith  long  forgotten  may 
once  have  been  sincere.  It  is  the  task  of  the  Divine  to  condemn  the 
errors  of  antiquity  and  of  the  Philologist  to  account  for  them.  I  will 
only  pray  you  to  read  with  patience,  and  human  sympathy,  the 
thoughts  of  men  who  lived  without  blame  in  a  darkness  they  could 
not  dispel ;  and  to  remember  that,  whatever  charge  of  folly  may 
justly  attach  to  the  saying,  "  There  is  no  God,"  the  folly  is  prouder, 
deeper,  and  less  pardonable,  in  saying,  ct  There  is  no  God  but  for  me." 
—  Ruskin  :  Queen  of  the  Air. 

Find  paragraphs,  in  Appendix  B,  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  stated  last. 


(b)    SUBJECT  IMPLIED. 

In  a  large  number  of  cases,  however,  the  theme  cannot 
be  stated  so  directly ;  it  is  not  found  expressed  in  a  topic- 
sentence  anywhere  in  the  paragraph ;  but  must  be  grasped 
by  the  reader  from  the  effect  produced  upon  him  by  the 
paragraph  as  a  whole.  If  the  effect  is  single,  is  an  effect  of 
oneness  and  of  unity,  the  reader  will  be  able  to  supply  for 
himself,  in  thought,  the  theme  of  the  paragraph;  —  and  the 
test  of  a  good  paragraph  will  always  be  his  ability  to  do 
this.  But  a  paragraph  cannot  produce  the  effect  of  unity 
upon  the  reader  unless  there  was  unity  of  idea  or  of  feeling 
in  the  mind  of  the  writer  when  the  paragraph  was  written. 
It  is  of  especial  importance,  therefore,  in  the  case  of  para- 
graphs which  have  no  formally  stated  topic-sentence  to  hold 
the  writer  to  his  theme,  that  the  writer  keep  his  theme 
prominently  in  mind  while  constructing  each  sentence. 
This  is  very  important  in  writing  narrative  and  descriptive 
paragraphs.  In  these,  it  is  seldom  that  the  theme  is  ex- 
pressed in  so  many  words.  Yet  a  good  narrative  or  descrip- 
tive writer  will  so  marshal  his  details  that  the  effect  will 
be  single. 

The  following  paragraph,  of  which  the  subject  may  be 
stated  as,  "  The  Annihilation  of  the  Army  of  Cabul,"  illus- 
trates this  unity  of  effect :  — 


24  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Then  the  march  of  the  army,  without  a  general,  went  on  again. 
Soon  it  became  the  story  of  a  general  without  an  army  ;  before  very 
long  there  was  neither  general  nor  army.  It  is  idle  to  lengthen  a  tale 
of  mere  horrors.  The  straggling  remnant  of  an  army  entered  the 
Jugdulluk  Pass  —  a  dark,  steep,  narrow,  ascending  path  between 
crags.  The  miserable  toilers  found  that  the  fanatical,  implacable 
tribes  had  barricaded  the  pass.  All  was  over.  The  army  of  Cabul 
was  finally  extinguished  in  that  barricaded  pass.  It  was  a  trap  ;  the 
British  were  taken  in  it.  A  few  mere  fugitives  escaped  from  the  scene 
of  actual  slaughter,  and  were  on  the  road  to  Jellalabad  where  Sale  and 
his  little  army  were  holding  their  own.  When  they  were  within  six- 
teen miles  of  Jellalabad  the  number  was  reduced  to  six.  Of  these  six, 
five  were  killed  by  straggling  marauders  on  the  way.  One  man  alone 
reached  Jellalabad  to  tell  the  tale.  Literally,  one  man,  Dr.  Brydon, 
came  to  Jellalabad  out  of  a  moving  host  which  had  numbered  in  all 
some  sixteen  thousand  when  it  set  out  on  its  march.  The  curious  eye 
will  search  through  history  or  fiction  in  vain  for  any  picture  more 
thrilling  with  the  suggestion  of  an  awful  catastrophe  than  that  of  this 
solitary  survivor,  faint  and  reeling  on  his  jaded  horse,  as  he  appeared 
under  the  walls  of  Jellalabad,  to  bear  the  tidings  of  our  Thermopylae 
of  pain  and  shame.  —  McCarthy  :  A  History  of  our  Own  Times,  Vol.  I. 
p.  199. 

Find  paragraphs,  in  Appendix  B,  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  implied.  Discover 
the  theme  in  each  of  these  paragraphs  and  state  it  in  a  brief  sentence  or  phrase  suitable 
for  a  title. 

The  student  may  also  be  given  useful  practice  in  locating  the  topic-sentences  of  the 
paragraphs  quoted  in  the  introductory  chapter  of  this  book.  In  each  case  he  should 
phrase  a  brief  and  appropriate  title  for  the  paragraph. 

•  It  will  also  be  a  profitable  exercise  for  the  student  to  attempt  giving  appropriate 
single  headings  to  the  short  editorial  paragraphs  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  carefully 
edited  metropolitan  papers.  Of  the  headed  articles  in  the  news-columns  of  the  papers, 
the  first  generally  corresponds  to  the  title,  and  the  second,  which  is  usually  longer,  cor- 
responds, roughly,  to  the  working  theme. 

Another  useful  exercise  in  detecting  the  paragraph-subject,  consists  in  the  reading 
aloud,  by  the  instructor,  of  several  paragraphs,  the  student  to  give,  at  the  conclusion  of 
each,  the  paragraph-subject  as  he  has  determined  it  from  the  reading.  As  another  exer- 
cise, mimeograph  copies  of  paragraphs  from  which  the  topic-sentence  has  been  omitted 
may  be  distributed,  the  student  to  fill  the  gap  as  skillfully  as  he  can. 


2.    MEANS   OF  DEVELOPING. 

We  shall  now  study  some  of  the  means  by  which  the  idea 
or  theme  of  a  paragraph,  as  given  formally  in  the  topic- 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  25 

sentence  or  held  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  may  be  system- 
atically developed.  If  we  regard  the  topic-sentence  as  the 
germ-idea,  it  is  evident  that  it  contains,  potentially,  all  that 
may  be  said  on  the  subject  in  hand.  The  work  of  the  other 
sentences  is  to  bring  out  and  develop  clearly  the  thought 
contained  in  the  topic-sentence,  or  so  much  of  the  thought 
as  is  necessary  for  the  purpose  which  the  writer  has  in  view. 
The  means  by  which  they  do  this  will  of  course  vary  in 
different  cases ;  and  the  forms  in  which  the  growing  idea 
clothes  itself  as  the  paragraph  progresses  will  present  many 
different  modifications. 

All  of  these  various  forms  and  means  of  developing  the 
germ-idea  may,  however,  be  grouped,  for  practical  purposes, 
under  the  following  heads :  repeating  the  theme  in  other 
words ;  defining  or  limiting  the  theme  j  presenting  its  con- 
trary ;  explaining  or  amplifying  its  meaning  by  examples,, 
illustrations,  or  quotations  ;  particularizing  by  means  of 
specific  instances  or  details  ;  presenting  proofs  ;  and  apply- 
ing or  enforcing  the  theme.  Any  sentence  which  performs 
one  of  these  functions  may  claim  a  place  in  the  paragraph : 
any  sentence  (not  introductory,  transitional,  or  summariz- 
ing) which  does  none  of  these  things  should  be  excluded. 

It  need  hardly  be  said  that  these  means  of  developing  the 
theme  are  employed  in  various  combinations.  The  same 
paragraph  may  use  one  or  several  of  them.  What  one  shall 
be  employed  by  the  writer,  in  any  case,  will  be  decided  by 
the  nature  of  the  thought  discussed,  by  his  purpose,  and  by 
the  demands  of  the  subject  and  occasion.  Some  of  these 
combinations  will  be  designated  in  the  quotations  that 
follow. 


(a)  REPETITION  OF  THE  THEME  IN  OTHER  WORDS. 

When  the  subject  under  discussion  is  in  any  way  obscure, 
or  requires  special  emphasis,  it  may  be  repeated  in  other 


26  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

words  immediately  after  the  topic-sentence.  Sometimes 
the  repetition  is  delayed  until  a  later  stage  of  the  para- 
graph. Illustrations  of  repetition  may  be  seen  in  the  par- 
agraph quoted  from  Ruskin  (see  Unity),  and  in  those 
quoted  from  the  London  Spectator  and  Horace  Mann  (see 
Paragraph  Subject).  It  also  occurs  in  the  following  para- 
graphs :  - 

[Topic-sentence]  The  peculiarity  of  ill-temper  is  that  it  is  the  vice 
of  the  virtuous.  [Repeated]  It  is  often  the  one  blot  on  an  otherwise 
noble  character.  [Particularized]  You  know  men  who  are  all  but 
perfect,  and  women  who  would  be  entirely  perfect,  but  for  an  easily 
ruffled,  quick-tempered  or  'touchy'  disposition. —  Drummond :  The 
Greatest  Thing  in  the  World,  p.  29. 

[Topic-sentence]  There  are  few  delights  in  any  life  so  high  and 
rare  as  the  subtle  and  strong  delight  of  sovereign  art  and  poetry ; 
there  are  none  more  pure  and  more  sublime.  [Repeated  and  particu- 
larized] To  have  reacj  the  greatest  work  of  any  great  poet,  to  have 
beheld  or  heard  the  greatest  works  of  any  great  painter  or  musician, 
is  a  possession  added  to  the  best  things  of  life.  —  Swinburne  :  Essays 
and  Studies  (Victor  Hugo:  ISAnnee  Terrible). 

In  Appendix  A  3  will  be  found  a  list  of  topic-sentences  which  require  repetition  in 
other  words.  The  student  should  write  all  of  these  exercises.  Also  find  in  Appendix 
B  paragraphs  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  treated  in  this  way. 


DEFINITIVE  STATEMENTS. 

The  topic-sentence  is  not  always  sufficient  to  give  the 
exact  content  of  the  idea  to  be  expounded.  It  may  mean 
more  or  less  than  the  writer  intends.  In  this  case  it 
becomes  necessary  for  the  writer  to  define,  by  restriction  or 
enlargement,  the  terms  of  the  topic-sentence.  Synonymous  ex- 
pressions are  of  the  greatest  value  for  this  purpose.  Their 
felicitous  use  may  be  noticed  in  the  quotations  given  below. 
The  following  will  illustrate  the  use  of  definitive  state- 
ments :  — 

[Topic]  Practically,  then,  at  present,  *  advancement  in  life '  means, 
becoming  conspicuous  in  life ;  obtaining  a  position  which  shall  be 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  27 

acknowledged  by  others  to  be  respectable  or  honorable.  [Defined] 
We  do  not  understand  by  this  advancement,  in  general,  the  mere 
making  of  money,  but  the  being  known  to  have  made  it ;  not  the 
accomplishment  of  any  great  aim,  but  the  being  seen  to  have  accom- 
plished it.  In  a  word,  we  mean  the  gratification  of  d^t  thirst  for 
applause.  —  Ruskin  :  Sesame  and  Lilies,  p.  5. 

[Topic]  Nature  ...  is  a  collective  term  for  all  facts  actual  ^ 
and  possible ;  or  (to  speak  more  accurately)  a  name  for  the  mode 
.  .  .  in  which  all  things  take  place.  [Defined]  For  the  word 
suggests  not  so  much  the  multitudinous  detail  of  phenomena,  as  the 
conception  which  might  be  formed  of  their  manner  of  existence  as  a 
mental  whole  by  a  mind  possessing  a  complete  knowledge  of  them. 
—  John  Stuart  Mill. 

In  Appendix  A  4  will  be  found  a  list  of  topic-sentences  which  require  treatment  by 
definition,  restriction,  or  enlargement.  The  student  .should  write  all  of  these  exer- 
cises. Also  find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  treated  in 
thi»»  way. 


(c)  PRESENTING  THE  CONTRARY. 

Often  the  idea  can  be  made  clearer  by  presenting  a  con- 
trary, negative,  or  contrasting  idea  in  connection  with  it. 
This  is  illustrated  by  the  paragraph  from  Ruskin,  just 
quoted.  It  appears  also  in  the  following :  — 

[Topic  and  Details]  We  all  know  how  beautiful  and  noble  modesty 
is  ;  how  we  all  admire  it ;  how  it  raises  a  man  in  our  eyes  to  see  him 
afraid  of  boasting  ;  never  showing  off ;  never  pushing  himself  forward  ; 
[Contrary]  Whenever,  on  the  other  hand,  we  see  in  wise 
and  good  men  any  vanity,  boasting,  pompousness  of  any  kind,  we  call 
it  a  weakness  in  them,  and  are  sorry  to  see  them  lowering  them- 
selves by  the  least  want  of  divine  modesty.  —  Kingsley :  Country 
Sermons,  III. 

Frequently  the  contrasted  thought  takes  the  form  of  a 
concession,  and  is  stated  first :  - 

Despotism  may  find  here  and  there  its  logicians  to  defend  it.  But 
despotism  can  find  no  poet  to  chant  its  praises.  From  first  to  last, 
and  with  increase  of  power  from  age  to  age,  the  voice  of  literature  in 
all  its  forms  has  been  the  voice  of  popular  liberty.  —  J.  O.  Murray.  / 


28  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Such  contrasting  ideas  naturally  express  themselves  in 
antitheses  and  in  balanced  sentences.  These  produce  mo- 
notony and  weariness,  if  employed  often.  They  should  be 
used  sparingly,  and  their  form  of  presentation  varied. 

In  the  following  we  have  the  topic-sentence  treated  both 
by  contrast  and  by  example  :  — 

Mannerism  is  pardonable  and  is  sometimes  even  agreeable,  when 
the  manner,  though  vicious,  is  natural.  Few  readers,  for  example, 
would  be  willing  to  part  with  the  mannerism  of  Milton  or  of  Burke. 
But  a  mannerism  which  does  not  sit  easy  on  the  mannerist,  which  has 
been  adopted  on  principle,  and  which  can  be  sustained  only  by  con- 
stant effort,  is  always  offensive.  And  such  is  the  mannerism  of 
Johnson.  —  Macaulay  :  Life  of  Johnson. 

In  Appendix  A  5  the  student  will  find  a  list  of  topic-sentences  to  be  treated  by  con- 
trast. Also  find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B  in  which  the  topic-sentence  is  elucidated  by 
contrast. 

\ 

(d)  EXPLAINING  OB  ILLUSTRATING. 

Some  thoughts  require  explanation  and  concrete  illustra- 
tion. Similar  or  analogous  cases  .and  associated  facts  or 
experiences  (as  distinguished  from  specific  instances  or 
details)  are  needed  to  deepen  the  impression  made  by  the 
topic-sentence.  An  explanation  or  illustration,  being  usu- 
ally of  considerable  length,  detains  the  attention  of  the 
reader  upon  the  thought  presented  for  a  sufficient  time  to 
enable  him  to  contemplate  it  at  greater  advantage.  The 
parables  of  the  New  Testament  are  concrete  illustrations 
of  abstract  truths,  and  abound  in  explanations.  The  fol- 
lowing will  serve  as  a  specimen  of  illustration  and  ex- 
planation :  — 

[Topic]  Have  you  never  seen  men  and  women  whom  some  disaster 
drove  to  a  great  act  of  prayer,  and  by  and  by  the  disaster  was  forgot, 
but  the  sweetness  of  religion  remained  and  warmed  their  soul  ? 
[Illustration]  So  have  I  seen  a  storm  in  latter  spring ;  and  all  was 
black,  save  where  the  lightning  tore  the  cloud  with  thundering  rent. 
The  winds  blew  and  the  rains  fell,  as  though  heaven  had  opened  its 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  29 

windows.  What  a  devastation  there  was  !  Not  a  spider's  web  that  was 
out  of  doors  escaped  the  storm,  which  tore  up  even  the  strong-branched 
oak.  But  pre  long  the  lightning  had  gone  by,  the  thunder  was  spent 
and  silent,  the  rain  was  over,  the  western  wind  came  up  with  its  sweet 
breath,  the  clouds  were  chased  away,  and  the  retreating  storm  threw 
a  scarf  of  rainbows  over  her  fair  shoulders  and  resplendent  neck,  and 
looked  back  and  smiled,  and  so  withdrew  and  passed  out  of  sight. 
But  for  weeks  long  the  fields  held  up  their  hands  full  of  ambrosial 
flowers,  and  all  the  summer  through  the  grass  was  greener,  the  brooks 
were  fuller,  and  the  trees  cast  a  more  umbrageous  shade,  because  that 
storm  passed  by  —  though  all  the  rest  of  earth  had  long  ago  forgot  the 
storm,  its  rainbows,  and  its  rain.  — Theodore  Parker. 

In  the  following  the  whole  paragraph  is  occupied  with 
an  extended  illustration  of  the  character  of  truth  :  — 

When  we  are  as  yet  small  children  there  comes  up  to  us  a  youthful 
angel,  holding  in  his  right  hand  cubes  like  dice,  and  in  his  left  spheres 
like  marbles.  The  cubes  are  of  stainless  ivory,  and  on  each  is  written 
in  letters  of  gold,  —  Truth.  The  spheres  are  veined  and  streaked  and 
spotted  beneath,  with  a  dark  crimson  flush  above,  where  the  light  falls 
on  them,  and  in  a  certain  aspect  you  can  make  out  upon  every  one  of 
them  the  three  letters  L,  I,  E.  The  child  to  whom  they  are  offered 
very  probably  clutches  at  both.  The  spheres  are  the  most  convenient 
things  in  the  world ;  they  roll  with  the  least  possible  impulse  just 
where  the  child  would  have  them.  The  cubes  will  not  roll  at  all ; 
they  have  a  great  talent  for  standing  still,  and  always  keep  right  side 
up.  But  very  soon  the  young  philosopher  finds  that  things  which  roll 
so  easily  are  very  apt  to  roll  into  the  wrong  corner,  and  to  get  out  of 
his  way  when  he  most  wants  them,  while  he  always  knows  where  to 
find  the  others,  which  stay  where  they  are  left.  Thus  he  learns  — 
thus  we  learn  —  to  drop  the  streaked  and  speckled  globes  of  falsehood, 
and  to  hold  fast  the  white  angular  blocks  of  truth.  But  then  comes 
Timidity,  and  after  her  Good-nature,  and  last  of  all  Polite-behavior, 
all  insisting  that  truth  must  roll,  or  nobody  can  do  anything  with  it ; 
and  so  the  first  with  her  coarse  rasp,  and  the  second  with  her  broad 
file,  and  the  third  with  her  silken  sleeve,  do  so  round  off  and  smooth 
and  polish  the  snow-white  cubes  of  truth,  that,  when  they  have  got 
a  little  dingy  by  use,  it  becomes  hard  to  tell  them  from  the  rolling 
spheres  of  falsehood.  —  Holmes  :  TJie  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast-  Table. 

[Topic]  The  vast  results   obtained  by   science  are   won    by   no 


30  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

mystical  faculties,  "by  110  mental  processes,  other  than  those  which  are 
practiced  by  every  one  of  us  in  the  humblest  and  meanest  affairs  of 
life.  [Illustrations]  A  detective  policeman  discovers  a  burglar  from 
the  marks  made  by  his  shoe,  by  a  mental  process  identical  with  that 
by  which  Cuvier  restored  the  extinct  animals  of  Montmartre  from 
fragments  of  their  bones.  Nor  does  that  process  of  induction  and 
deduction  by  which  a  lady,  finding  a  stain  of  a  particular  kind  upon 
her  dress,  concludes  that  somebody  has  upset. the  inkstand  thereon, 
differ  in  any  way  from  that  by  which  Adams  and  Leverrier  discovered 
a  new  planet.  [Topic  repeated]  The  man  of  science,  in  fact,  simply 
uses  with  scrupulous  exactness  the  methods  which  we  all  habitually 
and  at  every  moment  use  carelessly.  —  Huxley  :  Lay  Sermons,  p.  78. 

Develop  by  illustration  and  explanation  the  topic-sentences  given  in  Appendix  A  6. 
Also  find,  in  Appendix  B,  paragraphs  which  employ  this  method  of  explanation. 


(e)    PARTICULARS  AND  DETAILS. 

The  topic-sentence  may  contain  an  expression  which 
naturally  leads  the  reader  to  expect  a  more  detailed  state- 
ment. Particulars  and  specific  instances  are  frequently 
needed  in  abundance  to  insure  the  acceptance  of  a  claim 
which  seems  to  assert  too  much.  So,  too,  a  topic-sentence 
which  is  couched  in  general  terms  may  require  particulars 
and  details  to  render  it  luminous.  The  following  illus- 
trate :  — 

[Topic]  There  is  scarcely  a  scene  or  object  familiar  to  the  Galilee 
of  that  day,  which  Jesus  did  not  use  as  a  moral  illustration  of  some 
glorious  promise  or  moral  law.  [Details]  He  spoke  of  green  fields 
and  springing  flowers,  and  the  budding  of  the  vernal  trees  ;  of  the 
red  or  lowering  sky  ;  of  sunrise  and  sunset ;  of  wind  and  rain  ;  of 
night  and  storm  ;  of  clouds  and  lightning ;  of  stream  and  river  ;  of  stars 
and  lamps ;  of  honey  and  salt ;  of  quivering  bulrushes  and  burning- 
weeds  ;  of  rent  garments  and  bursting  wine-skins  ;  of  eggs  and  ser- 
pents ;  of  pearls  and  pieces  of  money,  of  nets  and  fish.  Wine  and 
wheat,  corn  and  oil,  stewards  and  gardeners,  laborers  and  employers, 
kings  and  shepherds,  travelers  and  fathers  of  families,  courtiers  in  soft 
clothing  and  brides  in  nuptial  robes  —  all  these  are  found  in  His  dis- 
courses. — Farrar :  Life  of  Christ,  Vol.  I.  p.  271. 

[Topic]     The  parts  and  signs  of  goodness  are  many.     [Particulars 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  31 

and  specific  instances]  If  a  nian  be  gracious  and  courteous  to  strangers, 
it  shows  that  he  is  a  citizen  of  the  world,  and  that  his  heart  is  no  island 
cut  off  from  other  lands,  but  a  continent  that  joins  to  them.  If  he  be 
compassionate  towards  the  afflictions  of  others,  it  shows  that  his  heart 
is  like  the  noble  tree  that  is  wounded  itself  when  it  gives  the  balm. 
'If  he  easily  pardons  and  remits  offences,  it  shows  that  his  mind  is 
planted  above  injuries,  so  that  he  cannot  be  shot.  If  he  be  thankful 
for  small  benefits,  it  shows  that  he  weighs  men's  minds,  and  not  their 
trash.  But,  above  all,  if  he  have  St.  Paul's  perfection,  that  he  would 
wish  to  be  anathema  from  Christ  for  the  salvation  of  his  brethren,  it 
shows  much  of  a  divine  nature,  and  a  kind  of  conformity  with  Christ 
himself.  —  Bacon  :  Of  Goodness. 

Develop  the  list  of  topic-sentences  given  in  Appendix  A  7,  by  means  of  particulars, 
specific  instances,  and  details.  Also  find  pai  agrapks  in  Appendix  B  in  which  this  method 
of  development  is  employed. 


(/)    PRESENTING  PROOFS. 

Some  topic-sentences  call  for  proofs,  more  or  less  formally 
stated  according  to  the  character  of  the  subject.  A  topic- 
sentence  which  contains  an  affirmation  likely  to  raise  doubt 
in  the  mind  of  the  reader  should  always  be  accompanied  by 
sentences  containing  proofs  of  its  truth. 

[Topic]  It  is  too  soon  as  yet  to  attempt  to  estimate  the  effect  of 
the  Reform  Act  of  1867.  [Proof  I]  The  people  enfranchised  under 
it  do  not  yet  know  their  own  power :  a  single  election,  so  far  from 
teaching  us  how  they  will  use  that  power,  has  not  been  even  enough  to 
explain  to  them  that  they  have  such  power.  [Proof  II]  The  Reform 
Act  of  1832  did  not  for  many  years  disclose  its  real  consequences  ;  a 
writer  in  1836,  whether  he  approved  or  disapproved  of  them,  whether 
he  thought  too  little  of,  or  whether  he  exaggerated  them,  would  have 
been  sure  to  be  mistaken  in  them.  — Bagehot:  English  Constitution, 
p.  3. 

[Topic-sentence]  This  superiority  of  specific  expressions  is 
clearly  due  to  a  saving  of  the  effort  required  to  translate  words  into 
thoughts.  [Proof]  As  we  do  not  think  in  generals,  but  in  par- 
ticulars—  as,  [Proof  explained]  whenever  any  class  of  things  is  re- 
ferred to,  we  represent  it  to  ourselves  by  calling  to  mind  individual 
members  of  it  —  it  follows  that  when  an  abstract  word  is  used,  the 


3  2  Pa  rag  rap  h  -  Writing. 

hearer  or  reader  has  to  choose  from  his  stock  of  images  one  or  more 
by  which  he  may  figure  to  himself  the  genus  mentioned.  [Result] 
In  doing  this  some  delay  must  arise  —  [Repeated]  some  force  be  ex- 
pended ;  and  if,  [Enforced]  by  employing  a  specific  term,  an  appro- 
priate image  can  be  at  once  suggested,  an  economy  is  achieved,  and  a 
more  vivid  impression  produced.  —  Spencer :  Philosophy  of  Style. 

Give  proofs  of  the  topic-sentences  in  Appendix  A  8.    Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B 
which  employ  proofs  and  inferences. 


(g)    APPLICATION  OR  ENFORCEMENT. 

Frequently  a  topic-sentence  states  a  principle  the  truth 
of  which  is  assumed ;  the  application  of  the  principle  to 
some  particular  case  usually  follows  at  once.  Sentences 
enforcing  the  application  and  emphasizing  it  in  various 
ways  are  also  introduced.  The  following  will  illustrate 
the  statement  of » a  principle  and  its  application :  - 

[Principle]  People  who  cannot  spend  ten  millions  to  the  best 
advantage  are  just  as  incapable  of  the  economical  and  business-like 
disbursement  of  nine.  [Application]  It  is  an  easy  and  a  showy 
thing  for  a  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  to  say  bluntly  that  he  will 
reduce  the  Estimates  by  so  much,  and  the  departments  must  do  what 
they  can  with  what  remains.  But  that  procedure  no  more  solves  the 
economical  problem  than  [Illustration]  the  well-known  methods  of 
Procrustes  altered  the  real  stature  of  his  victims.  —  London  Times. 

A  sentence  of  enforcement  is  indicated  in  the  paragraph 
quoted  from  Spencer,  on  the  preceding  page.  Enforcement 
is  also  seen  in  the  following :  - 

Whoever  yields  to  temptation  debases  himself  with  a  debasement 
from  which  he  can  never  rise.  .  .  .  Every  unrighteous  act  tells  with  a 
thousand- fold  more  force  upon  the  actor  than  upon  the  sufferer.  The 
false  man  is  more  false  to  himself  than  to  any  one  else.  .  .  .  The 
moment  that  any  one  of  the  glorious  faculties  with  which  God  has 
endowed  us  is  abused  or  misused,  that  faculty  loses  forever  a  portion 
of  its  delicacy  and  its  energy.  Physiology  teaches  us  that  all  priva- 
tions and  all  violence  suffered  by  our  physical  system,  before  birth, 
impairs  the  very  stamina  of  our  constitution,,  and  brings  us  into  this 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  33 

world,  so  far  shorn  of  the  energies,  and  blunted  in  the  fineness  of  the 
perceptions  we  should  otherwise  possess.  '  So,  every  injury  which  we 
inflict  upon  our  moral  nature,  in  this  life,  must  dull  forever  and  ever 
our  keen  capacities  of  enjoyment,  though  in  the  midst  of  infinite  bliss, 
and  weaken  our  power  of  ascension,  where  virtuous  spirits  are  ever 
ascending.  .  .  .  Every  instance  of  violated  conscience,  like  every 
broken  string  in  a  harp,  will  limit  the  compass  of  its  music  and  mar 
its  harmonies  forever.  [Enforcement  of  principles]  Tremble,  then, 
and  forbear,  O  man !  when  thou  wouldst  forget  the  dignity  of  thy 
nature  and  the  immortal  glories  of  thy  destiny  ;  for  if  thou  dost  cast 
down  thine  eyes  to  look  with  complacency  upon  the  tempter,  or  bend 
thine  ear  to  listen  to  his  seductions,  thou  dost  doom  thyself  to  move 
forever  and  ever  through  inferior  spheres  of  being  ;  thou  dost  wound 
and  dim  the  very  organ  with  which  alone  thou  canst  behold  the  splen- 
dors of  eternity.  — Mann  :  Thoughts,  p.  67. 

Apply  and  enforce  the  topic-sentences  in  Appendix  A  9  which  state  a  principle. 
Find  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B  which  use  application  and  enforcement. 


(h)     INTRODUCTORY,    TRANSITIONAL,    AND    SUMMARIZING 

SENTENCES. 

Besides  the  sentences  which,  in  the  development  of  a 
iragraph,  perform  one  or  more  of  the  functions  mentioned 
under  the  seven  headings  just  preceding,  there  are  in  some 
paragraphs  other  sentences  whose  main  business  is  to  pre- 
pare the  way  for  the  topic-sentence,  to  act  as  a  bridge  be- 
tween different  parts  of  the  paragraph,  or  to  summarize  the 
sentences  of  one  part  before  the  next  part  is  taken  up. 

A  whole  sentence  may  be  devoted  to  introducing  the 
topic  of  the  paragraph ;  but,  more  often,  a  short  clause  pre- 
fixed to  the  topic-rsentence  will  be  sufficient;  and  in  most 
paragraphs  no  introduction  is  needed.  When  the  introduc- 
tion takes  the  form  of  a  clause,  this  clause  is  frequently  in 
direct  contrast  to  what  is  to  be  the  main  idea  of  the  para- 
graph. The  following  will  illustrate :  — 

[Introductory  contrast]  I  will  not  ask  your  pardon  for  endeavor- 
ing to  interest  you  in  the  subject  of  Greek  Mythology  ;  [Subject 


34  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

indicated]  but  I  must  ask  your  permission  to  approach  it  in  a  temper 
differing  from  that  in  which  it  is  frequently  treated.  —  Kuskin.  (The 
whole  quotation  is  given  under  Paragraph  Subject  (c).) 

[Introduction]  The  administration  has  erred  in  the  steps  to  restore 
peace  ;  but  its  error  has  not  been  in  doing  too  little,  but  [Topic]  in 
betraying  too  great  a  solicitude  for  that  event.  [The  paragraph  is 
devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  administration's  'solicitude'  for 
peace.]  —  Henry  Clay  :  Speech  on  the  War  of  1812. 


The  effect  of  an  introductory  sentence  is  often  to 
pone  the  statement  of  the  topic-sentence  to  a  later  stage  of 
'the  paragraph.     This  is  seen  in  the  following  :  — 

[Introductory]  The  statement  is  made  from  time  to  time  that  we 
are  admitting  great  masses  of  socialists.  The  number  is  exaggerated, 
and  more  importance  is  attached  to  the  utterances  of  these  than  they 
deserve.  It  must  be  admitted  however  that  some  of  them  know  just 
enough  to  be  dangerous.  [Indicating  what  the  subject  is  to  be]  But 
they  are  permitted  to  go  among  their  fellows  to  inoculate  them  with 
whatever  doctrines  they  choose,  and  there  is  nothing  to  oppose  them. 
Nobody  has  furnished  their  hearers  with  arguments,  or  taken  steps 
to  teach  them  that  in  America,  where  conditions  are  fairly  equal,  no 
necessity  exists  for  the  violent  agitation  of  these  questions.  [Topic- 
sentence]  But  train  bright  young  men  among  these  immigrants  to 
know  what  their  duties  are,  teach  them  their  rights,  put  at  their  dis- 
posal arguments  with  which  to  meet  the  specious  assertions  of  self- 
styled  and  talkative  leaders,  and  the  much-vaunted  dangers  of  socialism 
would  disappear.  —  Century. 

Short  summarizing  sentences  may  be  needed,  at  times,  to 
indicate  the  direction  which  the  thought  is  next  to  take,  or 
the  manner  of  treatment  to  be  pursued.  An  explanation 
or  a  reason,  of  considerable  length,  which  is  to  be  followed 
by  a  resumption  of  the  main  line  of  thought,  needs  such  a 
sentence.  The  following  paragraph  illustrates  this  :  — 

A  constitutional  statesman  is  in  general  a  man  of  common  opinions 
and  uncommon  abilities.  The  reason  is  obvious.  [The  next  twelve 
sentences  state  the  reason  at  length,  and  the  paragraph  concludes] 
The  most  influential  of  constitutional  statesmen  is  the  one  who  most 
felicitously  expresses  the  creed  of  the  moment,  who  administers  it, 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  35 

who  embodies  it  in  laws  and  institutions,  who  gives  it  the  highest  life 
it  is  capable  of,  who  induces  the  average  man  to  think  :  "I  could  not 
have  done  it  any  better,  if  I  had  had  time  myself ."  —  Bagehot :  Sir 
Robert  Peel. 

In  the  following,  notice  how  the  short  summarizing  sen- 
tences (here  placed  in  italics)  perform  the  double  duty  of 
acting  as  transitions  and  of  furnishing  a  basis  for  the  longer 
sentences  made  up  of  details  :  — 

Without  force  or  opposition,  it  (national  chivalry)  subdued  the 
fierceness  of  pride  and  power  ;  it  obliged  sovereigns  to  submit  to  the 
soft  collar  of  social  esteem,  compelled  stern  authority  to  submit  to 
elegance,  and  gave  a  domination  vanquisher  of  laws,  to  be  subdued 
by  manners. 

But  now  all  is  to  be  changed.  All  the  pleasing  illusions  which 
made  power  gentle,  and  obedience  liberal,  which  harmonized  the 
different  shades  of  life,  and  which,  by  a  bland  assimilation,  incor- 
porated into  politics  the  sentiments  which  beautify  and  soften  private 
society,  are  to  be  dissolved  by  this  new  conquering  empire  of  light 
and  reason.  All  the  decent  drapery  of  life  is  to  be  rudely  torn  off.  All 
the  superadded  ideas,  furnished  from  the  wardrobe  of  a  moral  imag- 
ination, which  the  heart  owns,  and  the  understanding  ratifies,  as 
necessary  to  cover  the  defects  of  our  naked  shivering  nature,  and  to 
raise  it  to  dignity  in  our  own  estimation,  are  to  be  exploded  as  a  ridic- 
ulous, absurd,  and  antiquated  fashion.  —  Burke :  Reflections  on  the 
Revolution  in  France,  p.  90,  Macmillan's  edition. 

Such  expressions  as  "  The  main  point  is  this  "  ;  "  After  all, 
the  fact  remains,"  etc.,  are  useful  in  a  long  paragraph  for  sum- 
marizing what  has  gone  before,  and  for  indicating  the  relative 
importance  of  the  different  ideas  which  make  up  the  para- 
graph. The  following  contains  two  expressions  of  this  kind, 
the  first  subordinating,  the  second  giving  prominence  :  — 

As  a  single  man,  I  have  spent  a  good  deal  of  my  time  in  noting 
down  the  infirmities  of  married  people  to  console  myself  for  those 
superior  pleasures,  which  they  tell  me  I  have  lost  by  remaining  as  I 
am.  I  cannot  say  that  the  quarrels  of  men  and  their  wives  ever  made 
any  great  impression  on  me.  .  .  .  What  oftehest  offends  me  at  the 
houses  of  married  persons  where  I  visit,  is  an  error  of  quite  a  different 


36  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

description ;  it  is  that  they  are  too  loving.  Not  too  loving  neither : 
that  does  not  explain  my  meaning.  Besides,  why  should  that  offend 
me  ?  The  very  act  of  separating  themselves  from  the  rest  of  the 
world,  to  have  the  fuller  enjoyment  of  each  other's  society,  implies 
that  they  prefer  one  another  to  all  the  world.  But  what  I  complain  of 
is,  that  they  carry  this  preference  so  undisguisedly,  they  perk  it  up  in 
the  faces  of  us  single  people  so  shamelessly,  you  cannot  be  in  their 
company  a  moment  without  being  made  to  feel,  by  some  indirect  hint 
or  open  avowal,  that  you  are  not  the  object  of  this  preference.  — 
Charles  Lamb  :  Essays  of  Elia,  A  Bachelor's  Complaint. 

Find  introductory,  transitional,  and  summarizing  sentences  in  Appendix  B.  In 
Appendix  A  10  will  be  found  a  list  of  topic-sentences  of  a  miscellaneous  character.  The 
student  is  to  develop  each  of  these  into  a  paragraph,  using  those  methods  of  develop- 
ment which  seem  most  natural  and  suitable  to  each  topic.  Appendix  A  11  should  be 
now  thoroughly  memorized.  Some  of  the  exercises  in  Appendix  A  12,  should  be  care- 
fully worked  out  before  proceeding  further,  with  especial  attention  to  the  formation  of 
transitions. 


3.  EFFECT  ON  SENTENCE  STRUCTURE. 

The  methods  of  development,  treated  and  illustrated  in 
the  preceding  pages,  must  have  suggested  to  the  student 
that  the  requirements  of  any  paragraph  modify  considerably 
the  forms  of  the  sentences  composing  it.  The  whole  para- 
graph being  the  unit  of  thought,  it  follows  that  the  sentences 
are  influenced,  both  as  to  their  structure  and  as  to  their 
position,  by  the  demands  of  the  *  main  idea  or  theme  of  the 
paragraph.  It  is  the  theme  that  reduces  some  sentences, 
which  would  otherwise  stand  independent,  to  subordinate  po- 
sitions ;  that  compels  the  employment  of  connecting  words  ; 
that  determines  whether  or  not  a  certain  word  shall  be  put 
out  of  the  usual  order  which  it  would  occupy  in  an  indepen- 
dent sentence ;  and  that  decides  what  words,  phrases,  clauses, 
or  sentences  must  be  given  the  most  emphatic  positions. 
Even  questions  of  punctuation  assume,  many  times,  a  very 
important  aspect  for  the  paragraph-writer.  The  unity  of  a 
paragraph  may  be  destroyed  by  carelessness  in  this  respect. 
We  shall  examine  in  the  following  pages  some  of  the  most 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  37 

important  of  the  modifications  which  the  paragraph  imposes 
upon  the  usual  forms  of  sentences,  and  shall  also  mention 
and  illustrate  some  of  the  additional  apparatus  which  the 
paragraph  employs. 

(a)  INVERSION. 

The  most  obvious  of  the  modifications  which  the  para- 
graph may  impose  upon  one  of  its  sentences  is  inversion. 
Any  sentence  which,  if  stated  in  its  usual  order,  would  tend 
to  obscure  the  main  idea  or  would  seem  for  the  moment  to 
introduce  a  new  topic,  may  have  its  parts  re-arranged  for 
the  sake  of  preserving  the  unity  and  sequence  of  the  para- 
graph. This  is  illustrated  in  the  following :  — 

For  choice  and  pith  of  language  he  [Emerson]  belongs  to  a  better 
age  than  ours,  and  might  rub  shoulders  with  Fuller  and  Browne  — 
though  he  does  use  that  abominable  word  reliable.  His  eye  for  a  fine, 
telling  phrase  that  will  carry  true  is  like  that  of  a  backwoodsman  for 
a  rifle  ;  and  he  will  dredge  you  up  a  choice  word  from  the  mud  of 
Cotton  Mather  himself.  A  diction  at  once  so  rich  and  so  homely  as 
his  I  know  not  where  to  match  in  these  days  of  writing  by  the  page  ; 
it  is  like  homespun  cloth- of -gold.  — Lowell :  My  Study  Windows. 

In  this  paragraph,  the  topic,  '  Emerson's  choice  of  lan- 
guage/ announced  in  the  first  sentence,  occurs  again  near 
the  close  of  the  second.  The  inversion  in  the  third  sentence 
is  solely  determined  by  the  need  of  keeping  the  topic  promi- 
nent. It  brings  together,  in  close  juncture,  the  two  things 
that  are  alike  in  the  last  two  sentences,  the  words  l  choice 
word '  and  '  a  diction/  etc.  Try  the  effect  of  re-writing,  in 
the  usual  order,  the  last  sentence  of  the  quotation  above. 
In  the  following,  it  is  the  expression  '  to  do  so '  which 
required  the  inversion  so  that  '  to  do  so '  might  be  brought 
as  close  as  possible  to  the  words,  Ho  repudiate/  and  'to 
disclaim.' 

It  is  among  the  most  memorable  facts  of  Grecian  history  that  — 
in  spite  of  the  victory  of  Philip  at  Chaeroneia  — .  .  .  the  Athenian 


38  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

people  could  never  be  persuaded  either  to  repudiate  Demosthenes, 
or  to  disclaim  sympathy  with  his  political  policy.  [Inversion]  How 
much  art  and  ability  were  employed  to  induce  them  to  do  so,  by  his 
numerous  enemies,  the  speech  of  ^Eschines  is  enough  to  teach  us.  — 
Grote  :  History  of  Greece,  C.  95. 

Account  for  any  inversions  you  find  in  the  paragraphs  given  in  Appendix  B.    Often 
the  reason  for  the  inversion  will  appear  if  the  sentence  is  re-written  in  its.  usual  order. 


PARALLEL  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  main  idea  sometimes  demands  for  itself  the  same 
place  in  all  of  a  series  of  sentences,  in  order  to  ensure 
prominence  by  repetition  and  by  similarity  of  form  and 
position.  This  gives  rise  to  the  balancing  of  one  part  of  a 
sentence  against  another.  Balanced  structure  is  sometimes 
extended  to  clauses,  phrases,  and  even  to  single  words. 
Paragraph  requirements  will  not  often  dictate  this  struct- 
ure ;  some  writers  employ  it  too  frequently.  When  whole 
sentences  have  this  similarity  of  form,  the  result  is  what  is 
known  as  parallel  construction.  The  following  will  illus- 
trate all  these  varieties  of  balance  :  — 

Certainly,  gentlemen,  it  ought  to  be  the  happiness  and  glory  of  a 
representative  to  live  in  the  strictest  union,  the  closest  correspondence, 
and  the  most  unreserved  communication  with  his  constituents.  Their 
wishes  ought  to  have  great  weight  with  him  ;  their  opinions  high 
respect ;  their  business  unremitted  attention.  It  is  his  duty  to  sacri- 
fice his  repose,  his  pleasure,  his  satisfactions  to  theirs,  —  and,  above 
all,  ever,  and  in  all  cases,  to  prefer  their  interest  to  his  own.  But  his 
unbiassed  opinion,  his  mature  judgment,  his  enlightened  conscience, 
he  ought  not  to  sacrifice  to  you,  to  any  man,  or  to  any  set  of  men 
living.  These  he  does  not  derive  from  your  pleasure,  —  no,  nor  from 
the  law  and  the  Constitution.  They  are  a  trust  from  Providence,  for 
the  abuse  of  which  he  is  deeply  answerable.  Your  representative 
owes  you,  not  his  industry  only,  but  his  judgment ;  and  he  betrays, 
instead  of  serving  you,  if  he  sacrifices  it  to  your  opinion.  My  worthy 
colleague  says,  his  will  ought  to  be  subservient  to  yours.  If  that  be 
all,  the  thing  is  innocent.  If  government  were  a  matter  of  will  on  any 
side,  yours,  without  question  ought  to  be  superior.  But  government 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  39 

and  legislation  are  matters  of  reason  and  judgment  and  not  of  inclina- 
tion ;  and  what  sort  of  reason  is  that  in  which  the  determination  pre- 
cedes the  discussion,  in  which  one  set  of  men  deliberate  and  another 
decide,  and  where  those  who  form  the  conclusion  are  perhaps  three 
hundred  miles  from  those  who  hear  the  arguments  ?  To  deliver  an 
opinion  is  the  right  of  all  men  ;  that  of  constituents  is  a  weighty  and 
respectable  opinion,  which  a  representative  ought  always  to  rejoice  to 
hear,  and  which  he  ought  always  most  seriously  to  consider.  But 
authoritative  instructions,  mandates  issued,  which  the  member  is 
bound  blindly  and  implicitly  to  obey,  to  vote,  and  to  argue  for,  though 
contrary  to  the  clearest  conviction  of  his  judgment  and  conscience,  — 
these  are  things  utterly  unknown  to  the  laws  of  this  land,  and  which 
arise  from  a  fundamental  mistake  of  the  whole  order  and  teuour 
of  our  constitution. — Burke:  Obedience  to  Instructions,  Speeches, 
p.  113. 

In  the  foregoing  quotation,  note  that  the  details  in  the  first  five  sentences  are  stated 
by  threes ;  that  the  balanced  structure  is  extended  even  to  the  adjectives  and  the  adverb- 
ial expressions ;  that  the  details  of  one  sentence,  while  corresponding  in  number  and 
form  to  those  of  another,  are  in  the  order  of  climax ;  that  the  inversion  in  sentence 
four  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  details  of  that  sentence  as  close  as  possible 
to  the  details  with  which  they  are  in  contrast,  in  the  third  sentence.  Note  that  beginning 
with  the  seventh  sentence,  the  details  occur  by  twos  ;  that  the  ninth  sentence  is  a  short 
summary  furnishing  the  basis  for  the  sentences  that  follow ;  that  the  repetition  in  the 
thirteenth  sentence  is  made  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  contrasting  details  in  juxta- 
position. Point  out  contrasting  words,  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  in  the  quota- 
tion, and  all  likenesses  of  form  and  arrangement.  In  the  quotation  from  Bacon  (Means 
of  Developing  (e))  all  the  sentences  after  the  first  have  similarity  of  form.  Find  illus- 
trations of  balanced  structure  and  parallel  constructions  in  Appendix  B. 


(c)    KEPETITION. 

It  has  already  been  noted  that  the  topic-sentence  is  some- 
times repeated  while  the  paragraph  is  developing.  The 
theme  of  the  paragraph  will  reappear  in  various  forms  of 
expression  at  important  points.  These  forms  may  repeat 
the  whole  topic-sentence,  or  only  its  significant  words ;  may 
repeat  literally,  or  by  means  of  equivalent  synonymous  ex- 
pressions. More  often,  the  theme  is  kept  prominent  by  the 
use  of  pronouns  and  demonstrative  expressions.  The  fol- 
lowing will  illustrate :  — 


40  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

[Topic-sentence]  The  great  thing  for  us  is  to  feel  and  enjoy  his 
[the  true  poet's]  work  as  deeply  as  ever  we  can,  and  to  appreciate  the 
wide  difference  between  it  and  all  work  which  has  not  the  same  high 
character.  This  is  what  is  salutary ;  -this  is  what  is  formative  ;  this 
is  the  great  benefit  to  be  got  from  the  study  of  poetry.  Everything 
which  interferes  with  it,  which  hinders  it,  is  injurious.  True,  we 
must  read  our  classic  with  open  eyes,  and  not  with  eyes  blinded  with 
superstition ;  we  must  perceive  when  his  work  comes  short,  when  it 
drops  out  of  the  class  of  the  very  best,  and  we  must  rate  it  in  such 
cases,  at  its  proper  value.  But  the  use  of  this  negative  criticism  is 
not  in  itself,  it  is  entirely  in  its  enabling  us  to  have  a  clearer  sense  and 
a  deeper  enjoyment  of  what  is  truly  excellent.  To  trace  the  labor,  the 
attempts,  the  weaknesses,  the  failures  of  a  genuine  classic,  to  acquaint 
oneself  with  his  time  and  his  life  and  his  historical  relationships,  is  mere 
literary  dillettantism  unless  it  has  that  clear  sense  and  deeper  enjoyment 
for  its  end.  —  Arnold :  Introduction  to  Ward's  English  Poets. 

In  the  example  just  quoted  there  is  another  set  of  references  to  carry  the  thought 
back  to  the  words,  'his  [the  true  poet's]  work.'  Eead  the  paragraph  again  and  point 
them  out.  Other  examples  for  practice  of  this  kind  may  be  found  in  Appendix  B. 

The  need  of  closely  watching  the  pronouns  and  demon- 
strative words,  while  a  paragraph  is  being  written,  cannot 
be  emphasized  too  much.  When  a  word  is  employed  to 
point  back  to  some  other  word  or  statement  that  precedes, 
the  writer  should  make  sure  that  the  reference  is  clear  and 
explicit.  The  little  word  it  requires  special  attention  and 
care,  in  order  to  avoid  ambiguity.  When  used  retrospec- 
tively, the  word  it  should  be  employed  to  refer  to  but  one 
thing,  in  the  same  paragraph. 

Other  words  useful  at  times  for  keeping  the  theme  prominent  and  for  pointing  back 
to  something  already  said  are,  this,  that,  these,  those,  the  former,  the  latter,  he,  she, 
it,  here,  there,  hence,  whence,  hither,  thither,  thence,  now,  then.  They  are  called 
words  of  retrospective  reference.  The  expressions,  it  is,  there  are,  first,  secondly,  etc., 
are  sometimes  used  to  point  forward  to  something  that  is  to  follow  and  are  called  words 
of  prospective  reference.  Point  out  some  of  the  words  of  reference  in  the  paragraphs  to 
be  found  in  Appendix  B. 

SUBORDINATION. 

In  maintaining  its  prominence  in  a  paragraph  the  theme 
requires  the  subordination  of  all  subsidiary  and  modifying 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  41 

statements.  This  subordination  need  not  be  indicated  al- 
ways by  an  introductory  word ;  for  frequently  the  thought 
itself  is  obviously  subordinate.  It  is  not  often  necessary, 
for  instance,  to  introduce  a  proof  by  the  word  because  or 
for;  the  hearer  can  many  times  supply  these  words  for 
himself.  Still  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the  thought 
requires  that  the  subordination  be  plainly  indicated.  Con- 
cessions leading  up  to  a  contrast  usually  require  an  intro- 
ductory expression,  such  as,  it  is  true,  to  be  sure,  looking 
forward  to  a  sentence  beginning  with  still,  but,  yet,  or  how- 
ever. Conditions  usually  need  an  introductory  if,  unless. 
Degrees  of  subordination  in  thought  are  indicated  by  such 
words  as  at  least,  probably,  and  perhaps,  —  which  require 
skillful  handling  and  placing.  The  longer  expressions  used 
for  this  purpose  have  been  mentioned  under  Means  of  De- 
veloping (h). 

Such  words  as  also,  likewise,  too,  further,  therefore,  conse- 
quently, etc.,  may  sometimes  be  needed  for  showing  the 
exact  relation  between  the  sentences  which  they  introduce 
and  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph,  and  for  making  the  con- 
nection from  sentence  to  sentence.  It  is  quite  easy  to  use 
them  in  too  great  profusion.  Far  better  than  burdening  a 
paragraph  with  such  words  is  the  practice  of  making  each 
sentence  the  obvious  outgrowth  of  the  sentence  that  precedes 
and  the  obvious  preparation  for  the  sentence  that  follows. 

The  paragraph  quoted  below  &hows  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  these  words  of  reference,  here  printed  in  italics  :  - 

Finally,  it  is  urged  that  the  small  number  of  editions  through  which 
Shakespeare  passed  in  the  seventeenth  century,  furnishes  a  separate 
argument,  and  a  conclusive  one,  against  his  popularity.  We  answer, 
that  considering  the  bulk  of  his  plays  collectively,  the  editions  were 
not  few ;  compared  with  any  known  case,  the  copies  sold  of  Shakespeare 
were  quite  as  many  as  could  be  expected  under  the  circumstances. 
.  .  .  The  truth  is,  we  have  not  facts  enough  to  guide  us  ;  for  the 
number  of  editions  often  tells  nothing  accurately  as  to  the  number  of 
copies.  With  respect  to  Shakespeare,  it  is  certain  that,  had  his  master- 


42  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

pieces  been  gathered  into  small  volumes,  Shakespeare  would  have  had 
a  most  extensive  sale.  As  it  was,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  from  his 
own  generation,  throughout  the  seventeenth  century,  and  until  the 
eighteenth  began  to  accommodate,  not  any  greater  popularity  in  him, 
but  a  greater  taste  for  reading  in  the  public,  his  fame  never  ceased  to 
be  viewed  as  a  national  trophy  of  honour.  ...  It  is  therefore  a  false 
notion  that  the  general  sympathy  with  the  merits  of  Shakespeare  ever 
beat  with  a  languid  or  intermitting  pulse.  Undoubtedly,  in  times 
when  the  functions  of  critical  journals  and  of  newspapers  were  not  at 
hand  to  diffuse  or  to  strengthen  the  impressions  which  emanated  from 
the  capital,  all  opinions  must  have  travelled  slowly  into  the  provinces. 
But  even  then,  whilst  the  perfect  organs  of  communication  were  want- 
ing,  indirect  substitutes  were  supplied  by  the  necessities  of  the  times, 
or  by  the  instincts  of  political  zeal.  Two  channels  especially  lay  open 
between  the  great  central  organ  of  the  national  mind  and  the  remotest 
provinces.  Parliaments  were  occasionally  summoned  .  .  .  the  nobil- 
ity continually  resorted  to  the  court.  .  .  .  Academic  persons  stationed 
themselves  as  sentinels  at  London  for  the  purpose  of  watching  the 
court  and  the  course  of  public  affairs.  These  persons  wrote  letters 
.  .  .  and  thus  conducted  the  general  feelings  at  the  centre  into  lesser 
centres,  from  which  again  they  were  diffused  into  the  ten  thousand 
parishes  of  England.  .  .  .  And  by  this  mode  of  diffusion  it  is  that  we 
can  explain  the  strength  with  which  Shakespeare's  thoughts  and 
diction  impressed  themselves  from  a  very  early  period  upon  the  na- 
tional literature,  and  even  more  generally  upon  the  national  thinking 
and  conversation.  —  De  Quincey :  Biography  of  Shakespeare. 

Point  out  some  of  the  subordinating  expressions  in  the  paragraphs  given  in  Appen- 
dix B. 

(e)  PUNCTUATION. 

The  grammars  and  rhetorics,  which  regard  the  sentence 
as  the  unit  of  discourse,  give  rules  for  punctuation  applying 
mainly  to  the  proper  pointing  of  the  various  parts  of  a 
sentence.  Considering  the  paragraph,  however,  as  the 
true  unit  of  discourse,  we  are  met  by  questions  of  punctua- 
tion which  the  rules  usually  given  do  not  answer.  The 
rule  tells  us  to  put  a  period  at  the  close  of  every  declarative 
sentence  ;  but  the  important  question,  for  the  paragraph- 
writer,  often  is,  what  is  the  proper  place  at  which  to  bring 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  43 

the  sentence  to  a  close  ?  In  the  paragraph,  not  every  dis- 
tinct statement  is  followed  by  a  full  stop.  Statements 
which  standing  alone  would  properly  be  independent  sen- 
tences, are  frequently  united  into  one  sentence  when  they 
become  part  of  a  paragraph. 

The  rule  dictated  by  paragraph-unity  for  the  division  of 
a  paragraph  into  sentences  is  that  the  full  stops  should  be 
placed  at  the  close  of  the  larger  breaks  in  the  thought. 
What  the  sentence  divisions  shall  be  will  depend  upon  the 
meaning  in  each  case ;  upon  the  need  of  giving  prominence 
to  the  chief  assertion  and  of  keeping  the  other  assertions 
subordinate.  If  every  assertion  were  followed  by  a  full 
stop  the  style  would  be  too  broken.  A  sentence  in  a  para- 
graph may  contain  a  number  of  assertions  if  they  are  more 
closely  connected  in  thought  than  the  matter  of  two  succes- 
sive sentences.  To  illustrate :  — 

(1)  The  Commons  denied  the  King's  right  to  dispense,  not  indeed 
with  all  penal  statutes  but  with  penal  statutes  in  matters  ecclesiasti- 
cal, and  gave  him  plainly  to  understand  that,  unless  he  renounced 
that  right,  they  would  grant  no  supply  for  the  Dutch  war.  (2)  He, 
for  a  moment,  showed  some  inclination  to  put  everything  to  hazard  ; 
but  he  was  strongly  advised  by  Lewis  to  submit  to  necessity,  and  to 
wait  for  better  times,  when  the  French  armies,  now  employed  in  an 
arduous  struggle  on  the  continent,  might  be  available  for  the  purpose 
of  suppressing  discontent  in  England.  (3)  In  the  Cabal  itself  the 
signs  of  disunion  and  treachery  began  to  appear.  (4)  Shaftsbury, 
with  his  proverbial  sagacity,  saw  that  a  violent  reaction  was  at  hand, 
and  that  all  things  were  tending  towards  a  crisis  resembling  that  of 
1640.  (5)  He  was  determined  that  such  a  crisis  should  not  find  him 
in  the  situation  of  Strafford.  (6)  He  therefore  turned  suddenly 
round,  and  acknowledged,  in  the  House  of  Lords,  that  the  Declara- 
tion was  illegal.  (7)  The  King,  thus  deserted  by  his  ally  and  by  his 
Chancellor,  yielded,  cancelled  the  Declaration,  and  solemnly  promised 
that  it  should  never  be  drawn  into  precedent.  —  Macaulay  :  History  of 
England,  Vol.  I.  chap.  ii. 

The  first  sentence  of  the  quotation  above  contains  two  distinct  assertions,  which 
might,  so  far  as  ordinary  rules  of  punctuation  go,  form  two  distinct  sentences;  but 
they  are  more  closely  connected  in  thought  than  with  the  sentence  numbered  (2)  and 


44  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

so  are  properly  united  in  one  sentence.  Likewise,  the  two  assertions  in  sentence  (2) 
have  to  do  with  one  subject,  "he,"  —  the  King  —  and  so  are  properly  joined  in  one  sen- 
tence. Sentence  (3)  has  a  different  subject  and  properly  stands  alone.  Sentences  (4), 
(5),  and  (6)  are  on  one  subject ;  and  (4)  and  (5)  might  have  been  united  without  injury  , 
but  (6),  containing  one  of  the  most  important  assertions  of  the  paragraph,  required  the 
distinction  which  separate  statement  gives  it.  Sentence  (7),  being  on  a  different  subject, 
is,  of  course,  stated  by  itself.  Re-write  the  paragraph,  making  each  assertion  a  separate 
sentence,  and  note  the  loss  of  unity.  Combine  these  assertions  differently  and  note  the 
loss  of  meaning  which  results. 

A  general  statement  containing  the  main  idea,  may  be 
followed  by  a  specific  statement,  with  only  a  colon  or  semi- 
colon separating  the  two.  The  same  rule  is  followed  when 
the  second  statement  gives  a  short  reason,  an  example,  a 
qualification,  a  consequence,  an  explanation,  or  a  repetition. 
To  illustrate :  — 

Now  surely  this  ought  not  to  be  asserted,  unless  it  can  be  proved  ; 
we  should  speak  with  cautious  reverence  upon  such  a  subject. — 
Quoted  by  Bain  :  Rhetoric,  p.  87. 

Agriculture  is  the  'foundation  of  manufactures ;  the  productions 
of  nature  are  the  materials  of  art.  —  Ibid. 

The  education  of  this  poor  girl  was  mean,  according  to  the  present 
standard  :  was  ineffably,  grand,  according  to  a  purer  philosophic  stand- 
ard :  and  only  not  good  for  our  age  because  for  us  it  would  be  unat- 
tainable. —  De  Quincey  :  Joan  of  Arc,  p.  39. 

M.  Michelet,  indeed,  says  that  La  Pucelle  was  not  a  shepherdess. 
I  beg  his  pardon  :  she  was.  What  he  rests  upon,  I  guess  pretty  well : 
it  is  the  evidence  of  a  woman  called  Haumette.  —  Ibid.,  p.  42. 

With  what  reverence  have  I  paced  thy  great  bare  rooms  and  courts 
at  eventide  !  They  spoke  of  the  past :  —  the  shade  of  some  dead  ac- 
countant, with  visionary  pen  in  ear,  would  flit  by  me,  stiff  as  in  life.  — 
Lamb:  Essays  of  Elia,  The  South-Sea  House. 

The  effect  of  the  semicolon  or  colon  used  in  this  way  is  to  indicate  the  subordina- 
tion of  the  second  assertion,  which  has  less  importance  and  prominence  when  attached 
to  the  main  proposition  than  if  it  should  stand  alone  in  a  separate  sentence. 

When  a  contrast,  introduced  usually  by  the  word  <  but,7 
is  brief  and  is  not  to  be  dwelt  upon,  it  is  attached  to  the 
main  assertion  after  a  colon  or  semicolon.  When,  how- 
ever, the  assertion  introduced  by  'but'  is  especially  em- 
phatic, or  is  to  be  discussed  further,  it  is  usually  given 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  45 

distinction  by  being  set  off  in  a  separate  sentence.     The  fol- 
lowing will  illustrate  these  two  facts  :  — 

Some  modern  writers  have  blamed  Halifax  for  continuing  in  the 
ministry  while  he  disapproved  of  the  manner  in  which  both  domestic 
and  foreign  affairs  were  conducted.  But  this  censure  is  unjust.  — 
Macaulay :  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.  chap.  iii. 

There  were  undoubtedly  scholars  to  whom  the  whole  Greek  litera- 
ture, from  Homer  to  Photius,  was  familiar :  but  such  scholars  were  to 
be  found  almost  exclusively  among  the  clergy  resident  at  the  Uni- 
versities. —  Ibid. 

Thus  emboldened,  the  King  at  length  ventured  to  overstep  the 
bounds  which  he  had  during  some  years  observed,  and  to  violate  the 
plain  letter  of  the  law.  The  law  was  that  not  more  than  three  years 
should  pass  between  the  dissolving  of  one  Parliament  and  the  con- 
voking of  another.  But,  when  three  years  had  elapsed  after  the 
dissolution  of  the  Parliament  which  sate  at  Oxford,  no  writs  were 
issued  for  an  election.  This  infraction,  etc.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  ii. 

It  is  not  very  easy  to  explain  why  the  nation  which  was  so  far 
before  its  neighbors  in  science  should  in  art  have  been  far  behind 
them.  Yet  such  was  the  fact.  It  is  true  that  in  architecture  .  .  . 
our  country  could  boast  of  one  truly  great  man,  Christopher  Wren ; 
.  .  .  But  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Charles  the  Second  there  was 
not  a  single  English  painter  or  statuary  whose  name  is  now  remem- 
bered. This  sterility,  etc.  —Ibid.,  chap.  iii. 

He  acted  at  different  times  with  both  the  great  political  parties : 
but  he  never  shared  in  the  passions  of  either.  .  .  .  His  deportment 
was  remarkably  grave  and  reserved  :  but  his  personal  tastes  were  low 
and  frivolous.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  ii. 

The  same  considerations  of  prominence,  emphasis,  and 
length  determine  whether  a  reason  introduced  by  'for' 
shall  be  appended  to  the  main  statement  or  shall  be  given 
the  distinction  of  a  separate  sentence.  To  illustrate:  — 

The  commencement  of  the  new  system  was,  however,  hailed  with 
general  delight ;  for  the  people  were  in  a  temper  to  think  any  change 
an  improvement.  They  were  also  pleased  by  some  of  the  new  nomi- 
nations.—  Macaulay:  History  of  England,  Vol.  I.  chap.  ii. 

France,  indeed,  had  at  that  time  an  empire  over  mankind,  such  as 
even  the  Roman  Republic  never  attained.  For,  when  Rome  was 


46  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

politically  dominant,  she  was  in  arts  and  letters  the  humble  pupil  of 
Greece.  France  had,  over  the  surrounding  countries,  at  once  the 
ascendency  which  Rome  had  over  Greece  and  the  ascendency  which 
Greece  had  over  Rome.  — Ibid.,  chap.  iii. 

A  paragraph  of  details  may  group  the  details  in  a  few  long 
sentences,  the  parts  being  divided  by  semicolons  or  colons ; 
or  each  detail  may  be  presented  as  a  separate  sentence. 
The  advantage  of  the  former  is  that  it  better  secures  unity 
of  effect ;  the  advantage  of  the  latter  is  that  it  secures  a 
more  emphatic  presentment  of  the  details.  A  combination  of 
the  two  plans  is  advisable.  They  are  illustrated  in  the 
following :  — 

France  united  at  that  time  almost  every  species  of  ascendency. 
Her  military  glory  was  at  its  height.  She  had  vanquished  mighty 
coalitions.  She  had  dictated  treaties.  She  had  subjugated  great 
cities  and  provinces.  She  had  forced  the  Castilian  pride  to  yield  her 
the  precedence.  She  had  summoned  Italian  princes  to  prostrate  them- 
selves at  her  footstool.  —  Ibid. 

The  interest  which  the  populace  took  in  him  whom  they  regarded  as 
the  champion  of  the  true  religion  and  the  rightful  heir  of  the  British 
throne,  was  kept  up  by  every  artifice.  When  Monmouth  arrived  in 
London  at  midnight,  the  watchmen  were  ordered  by  the  magistrates 
to  proclaim  the  joyful  event  through  the  streets  of  the  city  :  the  peo- 
ple left  their  beds :  bonfires  were  lighted :  the  windows  were  illumi- 
nated :  the  churches  were  opened :  and  a  merry  peal  rose  from  all 
the  steeples.  —  Ibid. 

The  following  selections  are  cited  as  examples  of  logical 
paragraphic  division  into  sentences,  in  which  the  punctua- 
tion is  a  decided  help  to  clearness  of  presentation,  and 
assists,  to  a  marked  degree,  in  keeping  the  main  subject 
prominent  and  lesser  details  subordinate  :  — 

Lawrence  Hyde  was  the  second  son  of  the  Chancellor  Clarendon, 
and  was  brother  of  the  first  Duchess  of  York.  He  had  excellent  parts, 
which  had  been  improved  by  parliamentary  and  diplomatic  experi- 
ence ;  but  the  infirmities  of  his  temper  detracted  much  from  the 
effective  strength  of  his  abilities.  Negotiator  and  courtier  as  he  was, 
he  never  learned  the  art  of  governing  or  of  concealing  his  emotions. 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  47 

When  prosperous,  he  was  insolent  and  boastful :  when  he  sustained 
a  check,  his  undisguised  mortification  doubled  the  triumph  of  his 
enemies :  very  slight  provocations  sufficed  to  kindle  his  anger ;  and 
when  he  was  angry  he  said  bitter  things  which  he  forgot  as  soon  as  he 
was  pacified,  but  which  others  remembered  many  years.  His  quick- 
ness and  penetration  would  have  made  him  a  consummate  man  of 
business  but  for  his  self-sufficiency  and  impatience.  His  writings 
proved  that  he  had  many  of  the  qualities  of  an  orator :  but  his  irrita- 
bility prevented  him  from  doing  himself  justice  in  debate  ;  for  nothing 
was  easier  than  to  goad  him  into  a  passion ;  and,  from  the  moment 
when  he  went  into  a  passion,  he  was  at  the  mercy  of  opponents  far 
inferior  to  him  in  capacity.  —  Ibid.,  chap.  ii. 

Whenever  the  arts  and  labors  of  life  are  fulfilled  in  this  spirit  of 
striving  against  misrule,  and  doing  whatever  we  have  to  do,  honorably 
and  perfectly,  they  invariably  bring  happiness,  as  much  as  seems  pos- 
sible to  the  nature  of  man.  In  all  other  paths,  by  which  that  happi- 
ness is  pursued,  there  is  disappointment,  or  destruction :  for  ambition 
and  for  passion  there  is  no  rest  —  no  fruition  ;  the  fairest  pleasures  of 
youth  perish  in  a  darkness  greater  than  their  past  light ;  and  the 
loftiest  and  purest  love  too  often  does  but  inflame  the  cloud  of  life 
with  endless  fire  of  pain.  But,  ascending  from  lowest  to  highest, 
through  every  scale  of  human  industry,  that  industry  worthily  fol- 
lowed gives  peace.  Ask  the  laborer  in  the  field,  at  the  forge,  or  in 
the  mine ;  ask  the  patient,  delicate-fingered  artisan,  or  the  strong- 
armed,  fiery-hearted  worker  in  bronze,  and  in  marble,  and  with  the 
colors  of  light ;  and  none  of  these,  who  are  true  workmen,  will  ever 
tell  you,  that  they  have  found  the  law  of  heaven  an  unkind  one  —  that 
in  the  sweat  of  their  face  they  should  eat  bread,  till  they  return  to  the 
ground ;  nor  that  they  ever  found  it  an  unrewarded  obedience,  if, 
indeed,  it  was  rendered  faithfully  to  the  command  —  "Whatsoever 
thy  hand  findeth  to  do,  do  it  with  thy  might. "  —  Ruskin  :  The  Mystery 
of  Life,  sec.  128. 

Examine  and  criticise  the  punctuation  of  some  of  the  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B. 
In  Appendix  G  4  will  be  found  some  of  the  rules  for  punctuation,  etc.,  which  are  fol- 
lowed by  leading  newspapers. 


4.    TYPES   OF   PARAGRAPH   STRUCTURE. 

The  illustrative  paragraphs  quoted  in  the  preceding  pages 
have  been  sufficient  to  show  that  there  are  many  distinct 


48  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

types  of  paragraph  structure.  Under  the  heading,  Means 
of  Developing  the  Paragraph,  the  various  expedients  were 
pointed  out,  by  which  the  theme  may  be  effectively  pre- 
sented and  wrought  out  in  detail  We  shall  now  name  and 
illustrate  some  of  the  more  important  types  of  structure  in 
the  isolated  paragraph  which  result  from  the  character  of 
the  theme  as  Expository,  Argumentative,  Descriptive,  or 
Narrative. 

(a)    EXPOSITORY  AND  ARGUMENTATIVE, 

This  type  is  devoted  to  explaining  and  expounding  an 
idea  or  to  proving  a  proposition.  It  is  the  type  in  which 
regular  structure  is  most  obvious.  It  may  employ  one  or 
several  of  the  means  of  developing,  according  to  the  nature 
of  the  theme  and  to  the  method  of  treatment  demanded.  In 
some  cases  a  strictly  logical  plan  is  needed ;  in  others  a  less 
formal  method  will  be  better. 


1.    The  Logical  Type. 

There  are  two  orders  of  progress  in  thought,  one  pro- 
ceeding from  the  statement  of  a  general  principle  to 
particular  applications  of  the  principle  (deductive  rea- 
soning), the  other  proceeding  from  the  statement  of  par- 
ticular facts  to  a  general  conclusion  from  those  facts 
(inductive  reasoning) .  In  deductive  reasoning,  the  general 
principle  (stated  usually  at  the  beginning)  is  applied  in 
the  particulars ;  in  inductive  reasoning  the  general  prin- 
ciple (stated  usually  at  the  end)  is  inferred  from  the 
particulars,  as  a  conclusion.  In  a  deductive  paragraph, 
as  would  be  expected,  the  sentences  applying  the  principle 
to  the  particular  case  in  hand,  usually  follow  the  topic- 
sentence,  which  states  the  principle.  In  an  inductive 
paragraph  the  sentences  stating  the  particular  facts 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  49 

usually  precede  the  topic-sentence,  which  states  the  general 
conclusion. 

(1)   Deductive. 

It  is  evident  from  the  nature  of  deduction  that  the  means 
of  development  which  it  most  often  employs  will  be  those 
indicated  and  illustrated  under  the  headings,  Presenting 
Proofs,  Application,  and  Enforcement  (see  Means  of 
Developing,  (/),  (#)).  For  deduction  has  for  its  standard 
of  reasoning,  this  maxim:  Whatever  is  affirmed  or  denied 
truthfully  of  a  whole  class,  may  be  affirmed  or  denied  truth- 
fully in  like  manner  of  everything  comprehended  under 
that  class.  To  illustrate :  — 

[Statement  of  principle]  The  general  principle  of  right  arrange- 
ment in  sentences,  which  we  have  traced  in  its  application  to  the  lead- 
ing divisions  of  them,  equally  determines  the  proper  order  of  their 
minor  divisions.  [Application  to  particulars]  In  every  sentence  of 
any  complexity  the  complement  to  the  subject  contains  several  clauses, 
and  that  to  the  predicate  several  others  ;  and  these  may  be  arranged 
in  greater  or  less  conformity  to  the  law  of  easy  apprehension.  Of 
course  with  these,  as  with  the  larger  members,  the  succession  should 
be  from  the  less  specific  to  the  more  specific  —  from  the  abstract  to 
the  concrete.  —  Spencer :  Philosophy  of  Style. 

Nihilism,  so  far  as  one  can  find  out,  expresses  rather  a  method,  or  a 
means,  than  an  end.  It  is  difficult  to  say  just  what  Nihilism  does  im- 
ply. So  much  appears  reasonably  certain  —  [General  statement]  that 
the  primary  object  of  the  Nihilists  is  destruction  ;  [Particulars]  that 
the  abolition  of  the  existing  order,  not  the  construction  of  a  new  order, 
is  in  their  view  ;  that,  whatever  their  ulterior  designs,  or  whether  or 
no  they  have  any  ultimate  purpose  in  which  they  are  all  or  generally 
agreed,  the  one  object  which  now  draws  and  holds  them  together,  in 
spite  of  all  the  terrors  of  arbitrary  power,  is  the  abolition,  not  only 
of  all  existing  governments,  but  of  all  political  estates,  all  institutions, 
all  privileges,  all  forms  of  authority ;  and  that  to  this  is  postponed 
whatever  plans,  purposes,  or  wishes  the  confederation,  or  its  members 
individually,  may  cherish  concerning  the  reorganization  of  society.  — 
Francis  A.  Walker  :  Socialism. 


50  Paragraph  -  Writing. 


(2)  Inductive. 

From  the  nature  of  induction,  it  is  evident  that  the 
means  of  development  which  it  employs  most  often  are 
those  indicated  and  illustrated  under  the  heading,  Par- 
ticulars and  Details  (see  Means  of  Developing,  (e)).  The 
other  means  of  development,  repetition,  contrast,  definition, 
and  explanation  are  used  in  paragraphs  of  both  orders,  as 
occasion  may  require.  The  following  illustrate  the  induc- 
tive order : — 

Sir,  whilst  we  held  this  happy  course,  [Particulars]  we  drew  more 
from  the  Colonies  than  all  the  impotent  violence  of  despotism  ever 
could  extort  from  them.  We  did  this  abundantly  in  the  last  war.  It 
has  never  been  once  denied  ;  and  what  reason  have  we  to  imagine  that 
the  Colonies  would  not  have  proceeded  in  supplying  government  as 
liberally,  if  you  had  not  stepped  in  and  hindered  them  from  contribut- 
ing, by  interrupting  the  channel  in  which  their  liberality  flowed  with 
so  strong  a  course  ;  by  attempting  to  take,  instead  of  being  satisfied  to 
receive  ?  Sir  William  Temple  says,  that  Holland  has  loaded  itself 
with  ten  times  the  impositions,  which  it  revolted  from  Spain,  rather 
than  submit  to.  He  says  true.  [General  conclusion]  Tyranny  is  a 
poor  provider.  It  knows  neither  how  to  accumulate,  nor  how  to 
extract. — Burke:  American  Taxation,  p.  158  (Payne's  ed.). 

Is  it  better  to  place  the  adjective  before  the  substantive,  or  the  sub- 
stantive before  the  adjective  ?  Ought  we  to  say  with  the  French  —  un 
cheval  noir  ;  or  to  say  as  we  do  —  a  black  horse  ?  [Particulars  from 
which  conclusion  is  to  be  drawn]  Probably  most  persons  of  culture 
would  decide  that  one  order  is  as  good  as  the  other.  Alive  to  the  bias 
produced  by  habit,  they  would  ascribe  to  that  the  preference  they  feel 
for  our  own  form  of  expression.  They  would  expect  those  educated 
in  the  use  of  the  opposite  form  to  have  an  equal  preference  for  that. 
And  thus  they  would  conclude  that  neither  of  these  instinctive  judg- 
ments is  of  any  worth.  There  is,  however,  a  philosophical  ground 
for  deciding  in  favour  of  the  English  custom.  If  "  a  horse  black"  be 
the  arrangement,  immediately  on  the  utterance  of  the  word  "  horse," 
there  arises,  or  tends  to  arise,  in  the  mind,  a  picture  answering  to 
that  word ;  and  as  there  has  been  nothing  to  indicate  what  kind  of 
horse,  any  image  of  a  horse  suggests  itself.  Very  likely,  however, 
the  image  will  be  that  of  a  brown  horse,  brown  horses  being  the 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  51 

most  familiar.  The  result  is  that  when  the  word  "  black  "  is  added,  a 
check  is  given  to  the  process  of  thought.  Either  the  picture  of  a 
brown  horse  already  present  to  the  imagination  has  to  be  suppressed, 
and  the  picture  of  a  black  one  summoned  in  its  place  ;  or  else,  if  the 
picture  of  a  brown  horse  be  yet  unformed,  the  tendency  to  form  it 
has  to  be  stopped.  Whichever  is  the  case,  a  certain  amount  of  hin- 
drance results.  But  if,  on  the  other  hand,  "a  black  horse"  be  the 
expression  used,  no  such  mistake  can  be  made.  The  word  "  black," 
indicating  an  abstract  quality,  arouses  no  definite  idea.  It  simply 
prepares  the  mind  for  conceiving  some  object  of  that  colour  ;  and  the 
attention  is  kept  suspended  until  that  object  is  known.  [Conclusion] 
if,  then,  by  the  precedence  of  the  adjective,  the  idea  is  conveyed  with- 
out liability  to  error,  whereas  the  precedence  of  the  substantive  is  apt 
to  produce  a  misconception,  it  follows  that  the  one  gives  the  mind 
less  trouble  than  the  other,  and  is  therefore  more  forcible.  —  Spencer : 
Philosophy  of  Style. 

Examine  some  of  the  more  formal  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B,  and  classify  them  as 
deductive  or  inductive.  Treat  some  of  the  topic-sentences  in  Appendix  A  9  deductively. 
Treat  some  of  the  same  sentences  as  conclusions  to  be  reached  by  the  inductive  process. 


2.    The  Less  Formal  Types. 

All  paragraphs,  whatever  their  method  of  construction, 
might  be  classified  either  as  deductive  or  as  inductive,  and 
there  would  be  room  for  considerable  casuistry  in  determin- 
ing under  which  head  many  paragraphs  would  fall.  The 
fact  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  find  examples  of  para- 
graphs which  are  undeniably  deductive  or  clearly  inductive 
indicates  a  close  relationship  between  the  two  orders  of 
thought  and  their  constant  intermingling  in  the  mind.  As 
a  matter  of  fact,  the  two  progressions  are  always  combined 
in  thought.  The  negation  of  one  means  the  negation  of 
the  other  also.  In  putting  into  language  his  mental  pro- 
cedure the  writer  may  pursue  a  variety  of  methods.  He 
may  (1)  suppress  the  inductive  operations  which  have  gone 
on  in  his  mind  while  thinking  on  the  subject  in  hand,  (2) 
suppress  the  deductive  operations,  (3)  mingle  the  two.  The 


52  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

tendency  in  good  prose  is  always  to  mingle  the  two  orders 
of  thought.  Thus  in  a  paragraph  which  is  clearly  deprived 
of  most  of  the  deductive  features,  the  conclusion  will  yet 
be  stated  first.  In  a  paragraph  deprived  of  most  of  the 
inductive  features,  the  general  principle  will  be  stated,  or 
re-stated  at  the  close.  In  other  cases  one  progression  will 
succeed  another  at  rapid  intervals  throughout  the  para- 
graph. 

This  intermingling  of  deduction  and  induction  which  is 
seen  in  almost  all  paragraphs  of  an  expository  and  argu- 
mentative character  gives  a  less  formal  appearance  to  para- 
graphs of  this  kind.  For  purposes  of  illustration,  there- 
fore, all  expository  and  argumentative  paragraphs  which 
are  not  exclusively  deductive  or  exclusively  inductive  are 
here  brought  under  the  title  of  '  less  formal  types.' 


(1)   Paragraphs  of  Definition. 

A  whole  paragraph  may  be  devoted  to  defining  the  sub- 
ject. Some  terms  require  a  careful  statement  of  their 
scope.  A  term  is  defined  not  only  by  giving  its  etymology, 
a  history  of  its  changes  in  meaning,  and  its  current  uses,  but 
by  giving  its  applications  to  various  departments  of  thought. 
In  the  following  quotation,  Sir  William  Hamilton  defines 
the  term  Philosophy :  - 

There  are  two  questions  to  be  answered  :  1st,  What  is  the  meaning 
of  the  name  ?  and  2d,  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  thing  ?  An  an- 
swer to  the  former  question  is  afforded  in  a  nominal  definition  of  the 
term  philosophy,  and  in  a  history  of  its  employment  and  application. 
In  regard  to  the  etymological  signification  of  the  word,  Philosophy  is 
a  term  of  Greek  origin.  It  is  a.compound  of  <f>i\os,  a  lover  OT  friend, 
and  (ro<f>ta,  wisdom  —  speculative  wisdom.  Philosophy  is  thus,  liter- 
ally, a  love  of  wisdom.  ...  It  is  probable,  I  think,  that  Socrates  was 
the  first  who  adopted,  or  at  least  th'6  first  who  familiarized,  the  ex- 
pression. It  was  natural  that  he  should  be  anxious  to  contradistin- 
guish himself  from  the  Sophists  (ol  cro0oc,  ol  cro0«rral),  literally,  the 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  53 

wise  men  ;  and  no  term  could  more  appropriately  ridicule  the  arro- 
gance of  these  pretenders,  or  afford  a  happier  contrast  to  their  haughty 
designation,  than  that  of  philosopher  (i.e.  the  lover  of  wisdom)  ;  and, 
at  the  same  time,  it  is  certain  that  the  substantives  0t\o<ro0ia  and 
0iX60-o0os  first  appear  in  the  writings  of  the  Socratic  school.  It  is 
true,  indeed,  that  the  verb  0tXo(ro0e?j>  is  found  in  Herodotus,  in  the 
address  by  Croesus  to  Solon ;  and  that,  too,  in  a  participial  form,  to 
designate  the  latter  as  a  man  who  had  traveled  abroad  for  the  purpose 
of  acquiring  knowledge.  It  is,  therefore,  not  impossible  that,  before 
*the  time  of  Socrates,  those  who  devoted  themselves  to  the  pursuit 
of  the  higher  branches  of  knowledge  were  occasionally  designated 
philosophers  :  but  it  is  far  more  probable  that  Socrates  and  his  school 
first  appropriated  the  term  as  a  distinctive  appellation  ;  and  that  the 
word  philosophy,  in  consequence  of  this  appropriation,  came  to  be 
employed  for  the  complement  of  all  higher  knowledge,  and,  more 
especially,  to  denote  the  science  conversant  about  the  principles  or 
causes  of  existence.  The  term  philosophy,  I  may  notice,  which  was 
originally  assumed  in  modesty,  soon  lost  its  Socratic  and  etymological 
signification,  and  returned  to  the  meaning  of  o-o(f>La,  or  wisdom.  Quin- 
tilian  calls  it  nomen  insolentissimum ;  Seneca,  nomen  invidiosum  j 
Epictetus  counsels  his  scholars  not  to  call  themselves  '  Philosophers ' ; 
and  proud  is  one  of  the  most  ordinary  epithets  with  which  philosophy 
is  now  associated. 

In  the  following,  from  George  William  Curtis,  we  have 
definition  and  explanation  combined : — 

By  the  words  public  duty  I  do  not  necessarily  mean  official  duty, 
although  it  may  include  that.  I  mean  simply  that  constant  and 
active  practical  participation  in  the  details  of  politics  without  which, 
upon  the  part  of  the  most  intelligent  citizens,  the  conduct  of  public 
affairs  falls  under  the  control  of  selfish  and  ignorant,  or  crafty  and 
venal  men.  I  mean  that  personal  attention  which,  as  it  must  be 
incessant,  is  often  wearisome  and  even  repulsive,  to  the  details  of  poli- 
tics, attendance  at  meetings,  service  upon  committees,  care  and 
trouble,  and  expense  of  many  kinds,  patient  endurance  of  rebuffs, 
chagrins,  ridicules,  disappointments,  defeats  —  in  a  word,  all  those 
duties  and  services  which,  when  selfishly  and  meanly  performed, 
stigmatize  a  man  as  a  mere  politician,  but  whose  constant,  honor- 
able, intelligent  and  vigilant  performance  is  the  gradual  building, 
stone  by  stone,  and  layer  by  layer,  of  that  great  temple  of  self- 


5 4  Paragrap h  -  Writing . 

restrained  liberty  which  all  generous  souls  mean  that  our  government 
shall  be. 

(2)  Paragraphs  of  Detail. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  common  types  of  paragraphs  in 
exposition,  consisting  simply  of  the  inclusive  topic-sentence, 
preceded  or  followed  by  particulars,  examples,  and  illustra- 
tions. 

We  do  not  notice  the  ticking  of  the  clock,  the  noise  of  the  city 
streets,  or  the  roaring  of  the  brook  near  the  house  ;  and  even  the  din 
of  a  laundry  or  factory  will  not  mingle  with  the  thoughts  of  its 
workers,  if  they  have  been  there  long  enough.  When  we  first  put  on 
spectacles,  especially  if  they  be  of  certain  curvatures,  the  bright  reflec- 
tions they  give  of  the  windows,  etc.,  mixing  with  the  field  of  view, 
are  very  disturbing.  In  a  few  days  we  ignore  them  altogether.  .  .  . 
The  pressure  of  our  clothes  and  shoes,  the  beating  of  our  hearts  and 
arteries,  our  breathing,  certain  steadfast  bodily  pains,  habitual  odors, 
tastes  in  the  mouth,  etc.,  are  examples  from  other  senses  of  [Topic- 
sentence]  the  same  lapse  into  unconsciousness  of  any  too  unchanging 
content  —  a  lapse  which  Hobbes  has  expressed  in  the  well-known 
phrase,  'Semper  idem  sentire  ac  non  sentire  ad  idem  revertunt.'  — 
James's  Psychology,  Vol.  II.  p.  455. 


(3)   Other  Types. 

As  the  paragraph  which  conforms  most  nearly  to  the 
theoretical  structure  is  the  expository  or  the  argumentative 
paragraph,  this  has  been  used  for  purposes  of  illustration 
throughout  the  preceding  part  of  this  book.  Further  illus- 
tration here  is  therefore  unnecessary.  The  student  is 
referred  to  the  chapter  on  Means  of  Developing  the  Para- 
graph, where  he  will  find  the  other  types  of  expository  and 
of  argumentative  paragraphs  sufficiently  illustrated. 

Develop  some  of  the  topic-sentences  in  Appendix  A  10  by  methods  that  seem  most 
fitting  in  each  case.  Analyze  the  paragraphs  in  Appendix  A  13  according  to  their 
thought-divisions  as  the  illustrative  paragraph  there  given  is  analyzed.  In  Appendix  C  1 
will  be  found  an  exercise  in  Ten-Minute  Themes  in  Exposition  and  Argumentation  to 
be  here  introduced.  ^.  list  of  subjects  is  also  given. 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  55 


(&)    DESCRIPTIVE  AND  NARRATIVE  PARAGRAPHS. 

In  paragraphs  of  this  kind  the  plan  is  not  so  easily  seen, 
for  in  these  paragraphs  the  sequence  is  not  determined 
solely  by  the  logical  order  of  thought,  but  is  determined  in 
a  measure  by  the  nature  of  the  object  described  or  the  event 
narrated.  It  may  have  to  deal  with  seemingly  unrelated 
particulars.  These,  however,  may  be  grouped  so  as  to  pro- 
duce a  single  effect  on  the  mind.  A  building  is  something 
more  than  foundations,  walls,  roof,  door,  and  windows.  It 
has  a  meaning  as  a  whole  to  which  these  in  their  united 
capacities  contribute.  A  series  of  events,  taken  singly,  are 
without  significance  unless  reported  with  their  total  mean- 
ing as  a  group  clearly  in  mind. 

In  the  following  descriptive  paragraph  from  Euskin 
(Prseterita,  II.  v.)  notice  how  the  comparison  of  the  river 
Rhone  to  a  wave  (the  theme)  binds  all  the  details  into  a 
unified  whole :  — 

Waves  of  clear  sea  are,  indeed,  lovely  to  watch,  but  they  are  always 
coming  or  gone,  never  in  any  taken  shape  to  be  seen  for  a  second. 
But  here  was  one  mighty  wave  [The  Rhone]  that  was  always  itself, 
and  every  fluted  swirl  of  it,  constant  as  the  wreathing  of  a  shell.  No 
wasting  away  of  the  fallen  foam,  no  pause  for  gathering  of  power,  no 
helpless  ebb  of  discouraged  recoil ;  but  alike  through  bright  day  and 
lulling  night,  the  never-pausing  plunge  and  never-fading  flash,  and 
never-hushing  whisper,  and,  while  the  sun  was  up,  the  ever-answering 
glow  of  unearthly  aquamarine,  ultramarine,  violet  blue,  gentian  blue, 
peacock  blue,  river-of-paradise  blue,  glass  of  a  painted  window  melted 
in  the  sun,  and  the  witch  of  the  Alps  flinging  the  spun  tresses  of  it 
forever  from  her  snow. 

In  the  following  narrative  paragraph  notice  that  the  nar- 
rative details  are  grouped  about  the  character  description, 
which  is  here  placed  in  brackets.  The  particulars  are  all 
colored  by  the  writer's  evident  sympathy  with  the  King :  — 

Charles  appeared  before  the  Court  only  to  deny  its  competence  and 
to  refuse  to  plead ;  but  thirty-two  witnesses  were  examined  to  satisfy 


56  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

the  consciences  of  his  judges,  and  it  was  not  till  the  fifth  day  of  the 
trial  that  he  was  condemned  to  death  as  a  tyrant,  traitor,  murderer 
and  enemy  of  his  country.  The  popular  excitement  had  vented  itself 
in  cries  of  "Justice,"  or  "God  save  your  Majesty,"  as  the  trial  went 
on,  but  all  save  the  loud  outcries  t)f  the  soldiers  was  hushed  as  Charles 
passed  to  receive  his  doom.  [The  dignity  which  he  had  failed  to  pre- 
serve in  his  long  jangling  with  Bradshaw  and  the  judges  returned  at 
the  call  of  death.  Whatever  had  been  the  faults  and  follies  of  his  life, 
"he  nothing  common  did,  or  mean,  upon  that  memorable  scene."] 
Two  masked  executioners  awaited  the  King  as  he  mounted  the  scaf- 
fold, which  had  been  erected  outside  one  of  the  windows  of  the  Ban- 
queting House  at  Whitehall ;  the  streets  and  roofs  were  thronged  with 
spectators ;  and  a  strong  body  of  soldiers  stood  drawn  up  beneath. 
His  head  fell  at  the  first  blow,  and  as  the  executioner  lifted  it  to  the 
sight  of  all,  a  groan  of  pity  and  horror  burst  from  the  silent  crowd.  — 
Green's  Short  History,  p.  555. 

In  Appendix  C  2  will  be  found  a  list  of  subjects  for  Ten-Minute  Themes  in  Descrip- 
tion and  Narration,  with  suggestions  for  impromptus  and  reproductions.  A  list  of 
readings  suitable  for  class  exercises  is  given  in  Appendix  C  3. 


(1)    Portrait   Sketches. 

Two  varieties  of  descriptive  paragraphs  merit  special 
attention.  These  are  portrait  sketches  and  character  de- 
scriptions. The  simplest  form  of  portraiture  gives  a  mere 
catalogue  of  features.  A  higher  form  adds  to  this  the  men- 
bion  of  accessories,  as  of  clothes,  and  scraps  of  conversation. 
A  still  higher  type  imputes  to  the  subject  of  the  sketch 
personal  qualities  that  put  a  meaning  into  the  features 
described  —  makes  the  face  tell  the  story  of  the  life.  The 
various  kinds  run  into  one  another,  and  all  may  be  employed 
in  the  same  sketch.  The  following  paragraphs  will  illus- 
trate :  — 

SNUBBIN. 

Mr.  Serjeant  Snubbin  was  a  lantern-faced,  sallow-complexioned 
man,  of  about  five-and-f orty,  or  —  as  the  novels  say  —  he  might  be 
fifty.  He  had  that  dull-looking  boiled  eye  which  is  so  often  to  be  seen 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  57 

in  the  heads  of  people  who  have  applied  themselves  during  many  years 
to  a  weary  and  laborious  course  of  study  ;  and  which  would  have  been 
sufficient,  without  the  additional  eye-glass  which  dangled  from  a  broad 
black  riband  round  his  neck,  to  warn  a  stranger  that  he  was  very 
near-sighted.  His  hair  was  thin  and  weak,  which  was  partly  attribu- 
table to  his  having  never  devoted  much  time  to  its  arrangement,  and 
partly  to  his  having  worn  for  five-and-twenty  years  the  forensic  wig 
which  hung  on  a  block  beside  him.  The  marks  of  hair-powder  on  his 
coat-collar,  and  the  ill- washed  and  worse-tied  white  neckerchief  round 
his  throat,  showed  that  he  had  not  found  leisure  since  he  left  the 
court  to  make  any  alteration  in  his  dress :  while  the  slovenly  style  of 
the  remainder  of  his  costume  warranted  the  inference  that  his  per- 
sonal appearance  would  not  have  been  very  much  improved  if  he  had. 
Books  of  practice,  heaps  of  papers,  and  open  letters  were  scattered 
over  the  table,  without  any  attempt  at  order  or  arrangement ;  the 
furniture  of  the  room  was  old  and  rickety  ;  the  doors  of  the  book-case 
were  rotting  in  their  hinges ;  the  dust  flew  out  from  the  carpet  in  little 
clouds  at  every  step  ;  the  blinds  were  yellow  with  age  and  dirt ;  and 
the  state  of  everything  in  the  room  showed,  with  a  clearness  not  to 
be  mistaken,  that  Mr.  Serjeant  Snubbin  was  far  too  much  occupied 
"with  his  professional  pursuits  to  take  any  great  heed  or  regard  of  his 
personal  comforts.  —  Pickwick  Papers,  Vol.  II.  chap.  iii. 


DANTE. 

To  me  it  is  a  most  touching  face  ;  perhaps  of  all  faces  that  I  know, 
the  most  so.  Lonely  there,  painted  as  on  vacancy,  with  the  simple 
laurel  wound  round  it,  the  deathless  sorrow  and  pain,  the  known  vic- 
tory which  is  also  deathless  ;  —  significant  of  the  whole  history  of  Dante. 
I  think  it  is  the  mournf ulest  face  that  ever  was  painted  from  reality  ; 
an  altogether  tragic,  heart- affecting  face.  There  is  in  it,  as  foundation 
of  it,  the  softness,  tenderness,  gentle  affection  as  of  a  child ;  but  all 
this  is  as  if  congealed  into  sharp  contradiction,  into  abnegation,  isola- 
tion, proud  hopeless  pain.  A  soft  ethereal  soul  looking-out  so  stern, 
implacable,  grim-trenchant,  as  from  imprisonment  of  thick-ribbed  ice  ! 
Withal  it  is  a  silent  pain  too,  a  silent  scornful  one  ;  the  lip  is  curled  in 
a  kind  of  godlike  disdain  of  the  thing  that  is  eating  out  his  heart,  —  as 
if  it  were  withal  a  mean  insignificant  thing,  as  if  he  whom  it  had  power 
to  torture  and  strangle  were  greater  than  it.  The  face  of  one  wholly 
in  protest  and  life-long  unsur  render  ing  battle,  against  the  world. 
Affection  all  converted  into  indignation  ;  an  implacable  indignation ; 


5  8  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

slow,  equable,  silent,  like  that  of  a  god !  The  eye,  too,  it  looks-out 
in  a  kind  of  surprise,  a  kind  of  inquiry,  why  the  world  was  of  such  a 
sort  ?  This  is  Dante  :  so  he  looks,  this  4  voice  of  ten  silent  centuries,' 
and  sings  us  '  his  mystic  unfathomable  song.'  —  Carlyle  :  On  Heroes, 
p.  80. 

Other  examples  may  be  found  in  Ben  Hur,  chaps,  ii.  and  viii. ;  Bracebridge 
Hall,  p.  25;  Cromwell  at  Huntingdon  and  Naseby,  in  Carlyle's  Cromwell;  Pater's 
description  of  Leonardo's  Mona  Lisa,  in  his  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance  ; 
and  Lodge's  Life  of  Washington,  Vol.  II.  p.  380.  Note  the  advantage  of  epithet  and 
strong  adjectives  in  descriptions  of  this  kind.  A  few  portrait  sketches  are  included 
among  the  paragraphs  in  Appendix  B.  Short  sketches  of  persons  and  faces  known  to 
students  should  be  carefully  written  outside  of  class  by  students,  for  presentation  in 
class.  For  impromptu  writing  in  class,  portraits  of  well-known  historical  characters 
may  be  exhibited  in  class  and  written  descriptions  made  of  them. 


(2)    Character  Sketches. 

Success  in  'character  sketches  depends  upon  the  writer's 
power  to  seize  upon  the  principal  trait  of  character  pos- 
sessed by  the  subject  of  the  sketch,  the  predominating 
characteristic,  and  to  group  other  traits  as  the  natural 
results  of  the  leading  quality,  in  the  light  of  which  the 
deeds  of  the  subject  of  the  sketch  are  to  be  explained. 
Every  developed  character  has  a  central  quality  about  which 
other  traits  group  themselves.  That  we  speak  naturally  of 
Washington's  purity,  Lincoln's  honesty,  and  Queen  Eliz- 
abeth's versatility  is  unconscious  evidence  of  this.  This 
central  trait,  once  found,  will  furnish  the  paragraph  theme. 
Traits  should  be  illustrated  by  deeds,  events,  and  words. 
Epithet,  contrast,  and  figurative  language  tend  to  make  a 
character  portrayal  vivid  and  effective.  The  following 
paragraph,  from  Green's  History  of  the  English  People,  Vol. 
III.  p.  55,  will  illustrate  all  these  points :  — 

CHARACTER  OF  JAMES. 

[Introductory]  On  the  sixth  of  May,  1603,  after  a  stately  prog- 
ress through  his  new  dominions,  King  James  entered  London.  [Por- 
trait] In  outer  appearance  no  sovereign  could  have  jarred  more 


The  Isolated  Paragraph.  59 

utterly  against  the  conception  of  an  English  ruler  which  had  grown 
up  under  Plantagenet  or  Tudor.  His  big  head,  his  slobbering  tongue, 
his  quilted  clothes,  his  rickety  legs,  stood  out  in  as  grotesque  a  con- 
trast with  all  that  men  recalled  of  Henry  or  Elizabeth  as  his  gabble 
and  rhodomontade,  his  want  of  personal  dignity,  his  buffoonery,  his 
coarseness  of  speech,  his  pedantry,  his  personal  cowardice.  [Charac- 
ter contrasted  with  portrait]  Under  this  ridiculous  exterior  indeed 
lay  no  small  amount  of  moral  courage  and  of  intellectual  dignity. 
James  was  a  ripe  scholar,  with  a  considerable  fund  of  shrewdness,  of 
mother  wit,  and  ready  repartee.  His  canny  humour  lights  up  the 
political  and  theological  controversies  of  the  time  with  quaint  incisive 
phrases,  with  puns  and  epigrams  and  touches  of  irony  which  still 
retain  their  savour.  His  reading,  especially  in  theological  matters, 
was  extensive ;  and  he  was  already  a  voluminous  author  on  subjects 
which  ranged  from  predestination  to  tobacco.  [Statement  of  the  cen- 
tral quality — a  confirmed  pedantry]  But  his  shrewdness  and  learn- 
ing only  left  him,  in  the  phrase  of  Henry  the  Fourth  of  France,  uthe 
wisest  fool  in  Christendom."  He  had,  in  fact,  the  temper  of  a  pedant, 
a  pedant's  conceit,  a  pedant's  love  of  theories,  and  a  pedant's  inabil- 
ity to  bring  his  theories  into  any  relation  with  actual  facts.  It  was 
this  fatal  defect  that  marred  his  political  abilities.  As  a  statesman  he 
had  shown  no  little  capacity  in  his  smaller  realm ;  his  cool  humour 
and  good  temper  had  held  even  Melville  at  bay ;  he  had  known  how 
to  wait  and  how  to  strike ;  and  his  patience  and  boldness  had  been 
rewarded  with  a  fair  success.  He  had  studied  foreign  affairs  as  busily 
as  he  had  studied  Scotch  affairs  ;  and  of  the  temper  and  plans  of  for- 
eign courts  he  probably  possessed  a  greater  knowledge  than  any  Eng- 
lishman save  Robert  Cecil.  But  what  he  never  possessed,  and  what 
he  never  could  gain,  was  any  sort  of  knowledge  of  England  or  Eng- 
lishmen. He  came  to  his  new  home  a  Scotchman,  a  foreigner,  strange 
to  the  life,  the  thoughts,  the  traditions  of  the  English  people.  And 
he  remained  strange  to  them  to  the  last.  A  younger  man  might  have 
insensibly  imbibed  the  temper  of  the  men  about  him.  A  man  of 
genius  would  have  flung  himself  into  the  new  world  of  thought  and 
feeling  and  made  it  his  own.  But  James  was  neither  young  nor  a 
man  of  genius.  He  was  already  in  middle  age  when  he  crossed  the 
Border ;  and  his  cleverness  and  his  conceit  alike  blinded  him  to  the 
need  of  any  adjustment  of  his  conclusions  or  his  prejudices  to  the  facts 
which  fronted  him. 

Point  out  in  the  above  the  lesser  contrasts,  epithets,  strong  adjectives,  and  figurative 
language.    Make  an  analysis  of  the  paragraph  like  that  given  in  Appendix  A  13.     Other 


60  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

illustrations  of  character  sketches  will  be  found  in  Hosmer's  Samuel  Adams,  p.  363  ; 
Irving's  Philip  of  Pokanoket  (last  par.),  in  the  Sketch  Book,  p.  409 ;  Green's  His- 
tory of  England,  Vol.  II.  chap.  iii.  p.  316.  A  few  character  sketches  are  also  included 
among  the  paragraphs  given  in  Appendix  B.  After  studying  and  analyzing  some  of 
these,  the  student  may  attempt  to  write  a  description  of  the  character  of  an  intimate 
friend. 


THE   EELATED  PARAGRAPH. 

Each  of  the  paragraphs  examined  thus  far  in  our  study 
has  been  treated  as  a  complete  composition  in  itself.  At- 
tention will  now  be  directed  to  those  modifications  of  struct- 
ure which  result  when  a  paragraph  becomes  a  part  of  an 
essay.  Related  paragraphs  are  those  which,  taken  together, 
form  a  complete  essay.  In  most  of  them  the  structure  is 
not  materially  different  from  that  which  has  been  discov- 
ered in  one  or  another  of  the  various  forms  of  the  isolated 
paragraph.  Like  the  isolated  paragraph,  most  related  para- 
graphs have  distinct  topic-sentences  which  are  developed  in 
one  or  more  of  the  ways  already  pointed  out ;  the  topic- 
sentences,  in  the  case  of  related  paragraphs,  introducing  in 
turn  the  various  headings  and  sub-headings  of  the  essay- 
outline.  There  are  a  few  special  kinds  of  related  para- 
graphs, however,  so  different  in  form  and  function  from 
any  of  the  isolated  paragraphs  studied,  that  they  require 
notice  and  illustration  at  the  outset.  What  these  forms 
are  will  appear  from  a  comparison  of  the  functions  of  the 
various  sentences  in  an  isolated  paragraph  with  those  of 
the  various  paragraphs  in  an  essay. 

1.    SPECIAL   FORMS. 

Regarded  as  sections  of  a  whole  composition,  the  various 
paragraphs  have  different  functions  to  perform  analogous  to 
those  performed  by  the  different  sentences  of  the  paragraph. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  61 

As  the  subject  sentence  of  a  paragraph  states  the  paragraph 
theme,  so  the  introductory  paragraph  of  an  essay  presents, 
more  or  less  distinctly,  the  theme  of  the  essay.  As  transi- 
tion words  and  sentences  may  be  necessary,  sometimes,  to 
connect  the  sentences  of  a  paragraph,  so  transition  para- 
graphs may  be  needed  at  focal  points  in  the  essay  to  con- 
nect the  paragraphs  of  the  essay.  Some  words  like  '  but/ 
'yet,'  'still/  i however/  presenting  a  contrast,  serve  in  a 
paragraph  to  arrest  the  thought  and  direct  it  into  a  differ- 
ent channel.  There  are  paragraphs  that  serve  the  same 
purpose  in  the  essay.  A  sentence  may  be  devoted  wholly  to 
restricting,  denning,  repeating,  amplifying,  illustrating,  or 
enforcing  an  idea  set  forth  in  a  previous  sentence.  So  in 
an  essay  whole  paragraphs  may  be  employed  for  restricting, 
denning,  repeating,  amplifying,  illustrating,  or  enforcing 
the  idea  of  a  preceding  paragraph.  As  there  are  certain 
expressions  at  important  points  in  a  paragraph  to  carry  the 
thought  back  to  the  subject  sentence,  so  there  may  be  para- 
graphs in  an  essay  that  show  the  bearing  of  the  thought  of 
contiguous  paragraphs  upon  the  main  idea  of  the  essay.  Of 
course  these  functions  vary  in  different  kinds  of  composi- 
tions, since  the  paragraphs  are  colored  by  the  nature  of  the 
piece  as  a  whole.  In  a  given  essay  some  may  be  absent 
entirely,  not  being  needed  for  the  kind  of  production  in 
hand,  just  as  in  a  given  paragraph  some  of  the  means  of 
development,  indicated  in  the  typical  plan  (see  Appen- 
dix A  11),  are  absent.  A  few  of  these  functions  will  be 
indicated  and  illustrated. 

(a)    INTRODUCTORY  AND  CONCLUDING  PARAGRAPHS. 

Of  these  little  need  be  said.  The  object  of  an  introduc- 
tory paragraph  is  to  segregate  the  ideas  of  the  composition 
in  hand  from  all  other  ideas.  As  this  is  nearly  always 
apparent  from  a  mere  statement  of  the  theme,  the  introduc- 


6  2  Paragrap  h  -Writing. 

tion  usually  needs  to  do  little  more  than  state  the  theme, 
and  indicate  briefly  the  line  of  development  to  be  followed. 
In  a  description,  the  introduction  frequently  gives  the  total 
impression  produced  by  the  object  described.  A  narrative 
introduction  usually  requires  nothing  more  than  the  place 
and  time  of  the  story.  A  newspaper  article  narrating  an 
important  series  of  events  usually  employs  the  introductory 
paragraph  for  the  purpose  of  giving  a  summary  of  the 
events  detailed  at  length  in  the  succeeding  paragraphs.  In 
such  an  article,  the  introduction  tells  the  whole  story  in 
brief. 

[The  subject  of  the  section  from  which  the  following  paragraph  is 
taken  is  ''Political  Institutions  of  Germany."  The  marginal  note 
gives  as  the  subject  of  this  paragraph,  "  Want  of  National  Institutions 
in  Germany."] 

It  was  the  misfortune  of  Germany  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries  that,  [Subject  of  section]  with  most  of  the  conditions  requisite 
for  the  formation  of  national  unity,  [Subject  of  paragraph]  she  had  no 
really  national  institutions.  There  was  [Subjects  of  sections  and 
paragraphs  to  follow]  an  Emperor,  who  looked  something  like  an 
English  King,  and  a  Diet,  or  General  Assembly,  which  looked  some- 
thing like  an  English  Parliament,  but  [Subject  of  paragraph  repeated] 
the  resemblance  was  far  greater  in  appearance  than  in  reality.  — 
Gardiner:  Thirty  Years'  War,  p.  1. 

The  concluding  paragraph  should  gather  into  itself  the 
force  of  all  the  preceding  paragraphs.  The  effort  should  be 
to  leave  a  strong  impression.  It  is  no  place  for  digressions  ; 
but  must  be  in  line  with  what  has  been  said  before. 

A  great  deal  must  be  allowed  to  Pope  for  the  age  in  which  he  lived, 
and  not  a  little,  I  think,  for  the  influence  of  Swift.  In  his  own  prov- 
ince he  still  stands  unapproachably  alone.  [Enumeration  of  points 
made  in  the  essay]  If  to  be  the  greatest  satirist  of  individual  men, 
rather  than  of  human  nature,  if  to  be  the  highest  expression  which 
the  life  of  the  court  and  the  ball-room  has  ever  found  in  verse,  if  to 
have  added  more  phrases  to  our  language  than  any  other  but  Shake- 
speare, if  to  have  charmed  four  generations  make  a  man  a  great  poet 
—  then  he  is  one.  He  was  the  chief  founder  of  an  artificial  style  of 


The  Related  Paragraph.  63 

writing,  which  in  his  hands  was  living  and  powerful,  because  he  used 
it  to  express  artificial  modes  of  thinking  and  an  artificial  state  of 
society.  Measured  by  any  high  standard  of  imagination,  he  will  be 
found  wanting;  tried  by  any  test  of  wit  he  is  unrivalled.  —Lowell: 
My  Study  Windows,  p.  433. 

Other  examples  of  introductory  and  concluding  paragraphs  will  be  found  in  Ap- 
pendix D  1. 


TRANSITIONAL  AND  DIRECTIVE  PARAGRAPHS. 

Transitional  and  directive  paragraphs  serve  to  make  plain 
the  logical  connection  between  the  main  topics  of  the  dis- 
course and  to  direct  the  thought  both  to  the  subject  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  and  to  that  of  the  following  paragraph. 
Transitional  paragraphs  have,  therefore,  two  offices  to  per- 
form. There  must  be  the  " backward  look"  to  the  subject 
that  precedes,  and  the  " forward  look"  to  the  subject  that 
follows.  The  following  will  serve  to  illustrate  :  — 

[In  a  preceding  paragraph  the  author  has  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  Confucius  is  worthy  of  high  respect.  This  idea  is  repeated  in  the 
opening  sentence.]  Confucius  belongs  to  that  small  company  of 
select  ones  whose  lives  have  been  devoted  to  the  moral  elevation  of 
their  fellow-men.  Among  them  he  stands  high.  For  [Transition  to 
new  subject]  he  sought  to  implant  the  purest  principles  of  religion  and 
morals  in  the  character  of  the  whole  people,  and  succeeded  in  doing 
it.  To  show  that  this  was  his  purpose  [Subject  of  next  paragraph 
definitely  stated]  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  a  brief  sketch  of  his  life. 
—  Clarke:  Ten  Great  Eeligions,  p.  45. 

Other  examples  of  transitional  and  directive  paragraphs  will  be  found  in  Appendix  D  2. 

(c)  AMPLIFYING  PARAGRAPHS. 

It  is  often  the  case  that  a  thought  which  bears  directly 
on  the  subject,  but  which  can  be  mentioned  only  briefly  in 
one  paragraph,  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  deserve  a  more 
extended  treatment.  To  give  it  such  treatment  in  the  para- 
graph in  which  it  is  first  mentioned  might  destroy  the  unity 


64  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

and  due  proportion  of  that  paragraph.  In  such  a  case  it  is 
better  to  develop  the  thought,  in  detail,  in  the  paragraph 
immediately  following.  Separate  treatment  of  this  kind 
will  permit  the  reader  to  dwell  upon  the  thought  thus 
amplified,  long  enough  for  him  to  appreciate  its  bearing  and 
importance.  The  amplifying  paragraph  is  of  especial  value 
in  enforcing  an  idea  in  a  particular  way  and  in  making  it 
contribute  to  the  main  purpose  of  the  composition.  Often 
an  amplifying  paragraph  consists  of  details  which  enforce 
or  illustrate  the  idea  of  the  preceding  paragraph  as  a  whole. 
The  following  is  in  point :  — 

[The  thought  of  the  preceding  paragraph  is  that  everything  has  two 
sides,  a  tragic  and  a  comic.]  We  read  Mrs.  Caudle's  curtain  lectures, 
and  find  them  very  funny.  To  poor  Caudle  they  were  not  all  fun. 
We  make  merry  over  Jack  Falstaff.  Was  there  no  tragedy  there  ? 
Prince  Hal  laughed  atv  the  comedy.  King  Henry  saw  the  full  force  of 
the  tragedy.  Who  so  funny  as  Dogberry  ?  His  blunders  and  his 
stupidity  are  irresistible.  But  suppose  him  to  have  a  daughter  who 
had  been  to  the  schools,  who  knew  that '  vagrant '  was  not  pronounced 
'  vagrom,'  who  had  been  proud  of  her  father's  appointment,  and  had 
hoped  for  a  certain  social  elevation  from  it,  and  was  proportionally 
mortified  at  the  exhibition  he  was  making  of  himself ;  or  suppose  a 
reformer  to  have  been  present  who  was  indignant  that  such  men  should 
hold  office.  .  .  .  Neither  of  these  would  see  the  joke.  —  Everett : 
Poetry ',  Comedy,  and  Duty,  p.  169. 

Other  examples  of  amplifying  paragraphs  will  be  found  in  Appendix  D  3.  The  exer- 
cises provided  for  by  the  outlines  in  Appendix  A 12  should  now  be  resumed,  with  especial 
reference  to  the  formation  of  a  variety  of  introductory,  transitional,  amplifying,  and  con- 
cluding paragraphs,  wherever  these  appear  to  be  necessary.  Another  useful  exercise  is 
suggested  in  connection  with  the  list  published  in  Appendix  E. 

2.    THE   WRITING  OF  ESSAYS. 

Up  to  this  point  in  our  study,  we  have  concentrated  our 
attention  upon  the  individual  paragraph ;  we  have  exam- 
ined the  laws,  means  of  development,  and  types  of  structure 
of  isolated  paragraphs,  and  have  pointed  out  the  special 
forms  of  certain  related  paragraphs  so  far  as  they  have 


The  Related  Paragraph.  65 

required  notice  on  account  of  their  difference  in  function 
from  isolated  paragraphs.  The  student  having  thus  been 
led,  through  exercises  in  the  writing  of  single  paragraphs 
and  a  study  of  paragraph  structure,  to  a  knowledge  of  rhe- 
torical forms  and  functions,  is  prepared  to  undertake  the 
composition  of  those  groups  or  series  of  paragraphs  which 
we  call  articles  or  essays.  In  our  further  study,  then, 
attention  will  be  concentrated  not  upon  the  individual 
paragraph  but  upon  the  whole  essay.  This  change  in  the 
object  of  attention  necessitates  a  corresponding  change  in 
our  method  of  presenting  the  subject.  Beginning  with  the 
usual  division  of  discourse,  we  shall  take  up  in  turn  the 
descriptive  essay,  the  narrative  essay,  the  expository  essay, 
and  the  argumentative  essay,  pointing  out,  in  the  case  of 
each,  those  principles  and  cautions  which  have  been  found 
most  useful  in  actual  writing. 


(a)    THE  DESCRIPTIVE  ESSAY. 

In  studying  types  of  paragraph  structure  (see  p.  55)  the 
student  was  given  some  practice  in  description.  What  was 
said  there  of  descriptive  paragraphs  applies  with  equal 
force  to  the  descriptive  essay,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a 
larger  and  more  extensive  form  of  the  descriptive  para- 
graph. 


(1)    Province  and  Kinds  of  Description. 

The  descriptive  essay  has  for  its  purpose  the  presenta- 
tion, in  language,  of  a  picture  of  some  material  object, 
mental  state,  or  character.  The  object,  state,  or  character 
may  be  either  real  or  imagined;  but,  in  both  cases,  it  is 
presented  as  if  real,  and  the  same  laws  govern  both  kinds 
of  description. 


66  Paragraph  -  Writing. 


(2)    Selection  of  a  Subject. 

The  value  of  a  description  depends  upon  clearness  of 
observation  and  effectiveness  in  reporting  what  is  observed. 
The  advantage  is  evident,  therefore,  of  selecting  objects  for 
description  which  the  writer  has  himself  seen,  mental  states 
which  he  has  himself  experienced,  characters  with  which  he 
has  himself  been  brought  in  contact.  Objects  and  char- 
acters close  at  hand  afford  the  best  materials  for  descrip- 
tion. A  room,  a  scene,  a  face,  a  picture,  a  building,  a 
character,  well  known  to  the  describer,  furnish  better  sub- 
jects than  similar  themes  taken  from  history  or  reported  at 
second  hand. 

A  list  of  subjects  suitable  for  short  descriptions  may  be  found  in  Appendix  C  2. 


(3)    Outlining  the  Subject. 

Material  objects  carry  their  own  outlines  with  them. 
The  observer  discovers  the  main  outlines  of  the  object  he 
wishes  to  describe  and  arranges  them  in  the  order  in  which 
they  appear  to  him.  As  the  main  features  of  any  material 
object  are  few  in  number,  the  corresponding  headings  in 
the  outline  will  be  few,  and  distinctly  stated.  The  lesser 
details,  so  far  as  these  require  mention,  will  be  arranged  as 
subdivisions  of  the  main  headings  to  which  they  respec- 
tively belong.  In  selecting  features  for  the  main  headings, 
prominence  is  the  rule  that  governs ;  in  selecting  and 
arranging  the  details  for  the  subheadings,  the  order  of 
proximity  is  to  be  followed.  Descriptions  of  character  fur- 
nish a  less  obvious  outline.  Here  the  two  or  three  chief 
characteristics,  carefully  distinguished,  give  the  main  head- 
ings. These  larger  headings  are  presented  usually  in  the 
order  of  their  prominence,  the  most  prominent  coming 


The  Related  Paragraph.  67 

last ;  lesser  traits  are  arranged  as  subdivisions  under  these 
in  the  order  of  similarity  or  of  contrast. 

Specimen  outlines  in  description  are  given  in  Appendix  A 12.  An  exercise  in  rhetor- 
ical analysis,  including  work  in  discovering  outlines  from  descriptive  articles,  is  sug- 
gested in  Appendix  E. 


(4)    Purpose  in  Description. 

Every  descriptive  essay  has  a  purpose,  though  generally 
the  purpose  is  not  directly  expressed.  If  expressed  at  all, 
it  will  usually  be  in  the  conclusion  of  the  essay.  The 
purpose  may  be  merely  to  convey  information;  yet  even 
here  it  will  be  information  to  a  certain  end,  and  the  whole  de- 
scription will  show  what  the  end  is.  A  botanist  and  a  land- 
scape-gardener will  describe  a  tree  in  different  ways.  The 
purpose  may  be  no  more  definite  than  to  produce  a  favor- 
able or  an  unfavorable  impression  of  the  object  described, 
and  yet,  though  nowhere  avowed  in  the  essay,  it  will  color 
the  whole  description.  For  example,  the  description  of  a 
school-room  may  all  tend  to  show  the  need  of  improvement 
in  lighting,  care,  or  ventilation.  A  scene  may  be  described 
so  as  to  produce  the  same  feeling  of  sympathy  or  abhorrence 
that  was  produced  in  the  observer.  A  character  description 
may  excite  admiration,  or  reverence,  or  awe,  or  detestation. 
It  is  the  hidden  purpose  which  gives  cohesion,  unity,  effec- 
tiveness, and  individuality  to  a  descriptive  essay. 


(5)  Point  of  View. 

The  purpose  determines  the  point  of  view  and  gives  the 
character  and  coloring  to  the  whole  essay.  The  expression, 
'  point  of  view/  is  used  in  two  senses.  In  one  sense  it  is  to 
be  understood  literally.  In  describing  a  scene,  for  instance, 
the  observer  takes  his  stand  (in  thought)  at  some  point, 
and  describes  the  elements  that  make  up  the  scene  as  they 


6  8  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

appear  to  him  from  that  point.  It  may  be  necessary,  in 
describing  extensive  objects  (as  a  large  building  or  an 
art  gallery),  for  the  describer  to  change  his  point  of  view, 
but  the  imaginary  path  which  he  follows  should  be  clearly 
marked  and  due  notice  of  each  change  should  be  given  to 
the  reader  by  some  such  expression  as,  "Passing  now  to 
the  interior  of  the  building,  etc."  But  a  wider  meaning  is 
evident  in  the  expression,  point  of  view,  when  we  say  that 
a  description  is  written  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  careless, 
or  interested,  or  sympathetic  observer  ;  or  from  the  point 
of  view  of  the  scientist,  or  the  reformer,  or  the  teacher; 
the  expression  here  referring  to  the  spirit  or  bias  of  the 
observer. 

Let  the  student  determine  the  point  of  view  of  any  description  that  he  has  read  : 
the  most  advantageous  position  from  which  to  view  the  school  building ;  the  changes  in 
the  point  of  view  which  would  be  required  in  describing  a  winding  avenue,  or  the  course 
of  a  river,  or  the  interior  of  a  large  manufactory.  In  the  wider  sense  of  the  term,  what 
is  the  point  of  view  of  Green's  description  of  Elizabeth  (Short  History  of  the  English 
People,  chap,  vii.),  of  Irving' s  description  of  Wouter  van  T wilier  (History  of  Neio 
York,  Book  III.  chap,  i.),  of  Johnson's  description  of  the  Happy  Valley  (Rasselas, 
chap,  i.)  ? 

(6)  Selection  of  Details. 

The  purpose  also  influences  the  selection  of  details. 
The  few  details  will  be  chosen  which  are  most  suggestive 
and  characteristic  of  the  thing  described,  and  while  enough 
will  be  said  to  give  a  unified  picture,  those  details  will  be 
especially  emphasized  which  tend  to  bring  out  the  writer's 
purpose  and  to  make  the  reader  see  as  the  writer  saw. 
Whatever  the  purpose  may  be,  the  points  to  select  for 
special  mention  are  not  those  which  the  object  to  be 
described  has  in  common  with  other  objects  of  the  same 
class,  but  those  in  which  it  differs  and  is  peculiar. 

Let  the  student  make  a  list  of  the  details  selected  for  mention  by  the  writer  of  any 
description  that  he  has  read.  What  details,  for  instance,  are  selected  in  Whittier's 
Snow-bound,  in  Longfellow's  The  Bridge,  in  Tennyson's  Mariana,  in  Hawthorne's 
The  Custom  House  (Scarlet  Letter),  in  Irving's  Ichabod  Crane  (Sketch- Book),  in  Cole- 
ridge's A ncient  Mariner?  What  gives  these  details  their  significance?  What  other 
details  might  have  been  mentioned  and  why  were  they  purposely  omitted  ? 


The  Related  Paragraph.  69 


(7)  Sequence  and  Grouping. 

The  order  in  which  the  details  are  presented  is  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  character  of  the  thing  described ;  but 
this  order  may  be  modified  by  the  purpose  of  the  writer. 
In  describing  a  material  object  the  general  impression  or 
effect  produced  upon  the  observer  at  the  first  view  natu- 
rally comes  first :  the  impression  of  greatness,  massiveness, 
beauty,  gloom,  or  brightness,  as  the  case  may  be;  then  the 
color,  as  this  is  one  of  the  first  things  noticed;  next 
the  general  plan,  shape,  and  size,  as  these  give  the  reader  a 
comprehensive  outline  into  which  he  may  fit  the  details  as 
they  are  mentioned;  finally,  the  material,  style,  arrange- 
ment, furnishings,  and  use.  Lesser  details  will  be  mentioned 
only  so  far  as  they  are  peculiar  or  are  necessary  to  a  unified 
picture,  and  they  will  be  presented  in  small  groups  in  con- 
nection with  some  of  the  main  headings,  or,  if  mentioned 
by  themselves,  will  be  used  to  illustrate  some  characteristic 
of  the  object  described,  such  as  convenience,  adaptedness  to 
use,  ornamentation,  or  plainness. 

See,  also,  what  is  said  under  '  outlining  the  subject,'  and  under  Portrait  and  Character 
Sketches  (pp.  56-60). 

(8)    Helps  to  Description. 

The  object  of  description  being  to  make  the  reader  see 
mentally  what  the  writer  saw  actually,  description  becomes 
to  a  large  degree  a  matter  of  conveying  impressions.  Com- 
parisons, similes,  contrasts,  epithet,  and  figurative  language 
are  the  natural  means  resorted  to  for  conveying  personal 
impressions  from  one  to  another  and  have  a  prominent  part 
in  effective  description.  Feelings  and  circumstances  natu- 
rally associated  with  objects  of  the  class  described  give 
clearness  and  vividness  to  a  description,  and  a  final  and 
unified  impression  is  given  by  stating  in  conclusion  the 


70  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

effect  produced  upon  the  mind  of  the  observer  when  in  the 
presence  of  the  object. 

Subjects  for  longer  essays  in  description  may  be  selected  from  Appendix  G.  Sugges- 
tions of  a  useful  exercise  in  reporting  will  be  found  in  Appendix  F. 


THE  NARRATIVE  ESSAY. 

A  narrative  is  the  presentation  in  language  of  successive 
related  events  occurring  in  time.  Description  represents 
an  object  as  it  appeared  at  a  single  moment  of  time  ;  narra- 
tion represents  it  as  undergoing  changes.  Every  narrative 
involves  some  description  ;  a  history,  for  example,  requires 
much  descriptive  matter;  but  here,  as  in  other  forms  of 
narration,  the  descriptive  matter  is  merely  subsidiary  and 
explanatory,  and  is  kept  subordinate  to  the  main  purpose  of 
reciting  events  as  they  occur,  one  after  another. 

. 
(1)    Province  and  Kinds. 

The  field  covered  by  narration  is  large,  comprising  biog- 
raphy, history,  fiction,  and  a  large  class  of  poetry.  The 
simplest  kind  is  represented  by  the  biography  in  which 
there  is  but  one  main  character,  whose  fortunes  are  followed 
through  life.  Akin  to  biography,  in  treatment,  are  imagi- 
native and  fanciful  themes,  such  as  "  Experiences  in  the 
Life  of  a  Bank-note."  History  and  fiction  deal  with  larger 
themes,  and  the  interest  is  -carried  along  several  lines. 

(2)    Selection  of  a  Subject. 

% 
Here,  as  in  description,  there  is  great  opportunity  for 

originality  in  the  choice  of  a  subject.  Events  and  experi- 
ences in  the  student's  own  life  furnish  the  best  material 
for  first  efforts.  Later,  the  short  story  and  the  history  of 
organizations  in  which  he  has  had  a  part  may  be  tried. 


i    ITJSttVERSITY 
The  Related  Paragraph.    S^AUFQffjfe 

But  it  is  generally  unwise  for  him  to  take  up  complex  sub- 
jects in  imaginative  and  historical  narration  until  wide 
reading  and  protracted  thought  justify  it. 

A  list  of  subjects  suitable  for  shorter  articles  in  narration  may  be  found  in  Appendix 
02. 


(3)    Outlining  the  Subject. 

In  narratives  of  a  simple  form  in  which  there  is  but  one 
main  character,  and  in  which  the  interest  is  confined  to  a 
single  line,  the  critical  points  of  time  furnish  the  basis  of 
the  outline  structure  and  the  main  heads  of  the  outline. 
The  narrative  of  a  personal  adventure  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate. If  the  adventure  is  worth  recounting,  it  will  have  a 
center  of  interest,  a  culminating  point  to  which  the  whole 
narrative  looks  forward.  This  fact  suggests  three  distinct 
points  for  a  single  outline  of  such  an  adventure.  The  first 
main  heading  will  include  the  events  that  lead  up  to  this 
center  of  interest ;  the  next  will  stand  for  all  that  belongs 
to  the  critical  point  of  the  adventure,  the  climax  or  height 
of  interest ;  and  the  third  will  include  the  result,  conclu- 
sion, or  explanation.  Naturally,  these  three  headings  are 
placed  in  the  order  of  time,  and  once  these  are  determined, 
the  lesser  details  will  arrange  themselves  under  the  main 
headings  to  which  they  respectively  belong. 

Certain  more  abstract  narratives  require  different  treat- 
ment and  different  planning.  Take,  for  example,  the  class 
of  themes  represented  by  subjects  of  this  kind :  The  His- 
tory of  the  Ballot  Reform  Movement ;  The  Growth  of  the 
Poetic  Spirit  in  Robert  Burns.  Here  the  distinct  elements 
of  the  History  or  of  the  Growth  are  discerned  by  analysis, 
and  after  being  arranged  in  the  order  of  causes  and  effects, 
they  are  set  down  as  the  main  heads  of  the  outline.  The 
order  of  causes  and  effects  may,  and  often  does,  coincide 
with  the  time  order ;  but,  if  not,  it  is  the  time  order  that 


7  2  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

must  yield.  In  such  themes,  it  is  often  best  to  take  up  one 
line  of  cause  and  effect  and  arrange  the  selected  events  that 
belong  to  it,  in  the  time  order  as  sub-heads ;  then  a  second 
line  of  cause  and  effect  with  its  selected  events,  and  so  on. 
This  is  the  method,  too,  of  some  of  our  best  histories  and 
of  all  novels. 

Specimen  outlines  in  narration  are  given  in  Appendix  A  12.  An  exercise  in  rhetorical 
analysis,  including  practice  in  discovering  the  outlines  from  narrative  articles,  is  sug- 
gested in  Appendix  E. 


(4)    Unity  and  Selection. 

As  in  description,  so  in  narration  the  writer's  point  of 
view  (in  the  larger  sense  of  that  term)  will  influence  his 
selection  of  details  and  his  manner  of  presenting  them. 
The  fact  that  a  narrative  is  told  implies  that  it  possesses  a 
peculiar,  individual,  and  unique  interest.  This  indicates 
the  rule  for  the  selection  of  details.  Details  which  differ 
from  the  ordinary  give  character  to  a  narrative  and  require 
the  most  important  setting.  There  is  even  more  opportu- 
nity for  detecting  and  using  peculiar  characteristics  in  nar- 
rative than  in  descriptive  writing :  it  is  the  unexpected  that 
often  happens,  and  much  is  made  of  this  fact  by  writers  of 
fiction.  Ability  and  willingness  to  omit  or  curtail  what  is 
usual  and  common,  that  the  attention  may  be  held  to  what 
is  unique  and  peculiar,  are  discernible  in  the  work  of  every 
good  story-teller.  The  culminating  point,  which  gives  the 
narrative  distinction,  is  kept  in  view  all  the  time  and  noth- 
ing is  admitted  which  does  not  carry  the  narrative  forward 
towards  it.  This  point  furnishes  the  center  of  unity  to  a 
narrative.  When  it  is  reached  the  reason  is  apparent  for 
all  the  details  and  incidents  that  have  been  previously 
mentioned  in  the  narrative.  Even  the  descriptive  digres- 
sions are  seen  to  have  played  an  important,  though  subor- 
dinate, part  in  leading  to  the  culmination. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  73 

(5)  Sequence  and  Grouping. 

The  narrative  writer  sees  clearly  (what  his  reader  cannot 
see)  the  end  for  which  all  the  incidents  are  recounted  and 
to  which  they  all  contribute.  This  suggests  the  chief  rule 
of  sequence :  That  sequence  of  events  is  best  in  which  each 
occurrence  stated  is  necessary  to  the  proper  understanding 
of  its  successor.  In  simple  narratives,  where  the  interest  is 
undivided,  this  rule  is  easy  to  follow ;  but  in  complex  narra- 
tives, such  as  the  novel  and  the  history,  sequence  is  harder 
to  secure  because  of  the  fact  that  several  contemporaneous 
lines  of  interest  must  be  kept  up.  The  writer  will  in  such 
cases  show  his  sense  for  sequence  by  his  method  of  group- 
ing facts  and  events.  One  line  of  interest  will  be  carried 
forward  to  a  point  at  which  all  the  lines  of  interest  meet ; 
then  another  will  be  brought  to  the  same  point ;  and  so  on. 
A  new  start  will  then  be  taken  to  the  next  goal  of  interest, 
and  this  process  will  be  repeated  until  the  culminating 
point  is  reached.  In  the  historical  essay,  these  various 
meeting-places  are  indicated  and  emphasized  by  summaries 
which  prepare  for  the  new  start.  Thus  the  grouping  of 
facts  is  by  periods  of  time  and  by  lines  of  interest,  each 
period  being  fixed  by  the  writer  with  reference  to  the  cul- 
mination. 

(6)  Suspense  and  Movement. 

This  topic  applies  mainly  to  a  story  with  a  complicated 
plot,  and  to  an  extensive  history.  The  management  of  a 
narrative  of  either  kind  will  involve  attention  to  both 
suspense  and  movement.  Suspense  retards  the  progress 
of  the  narrative  and  movement  accelerates  it.  Suspense  is 
advisable  just  before  the  culminating  point  of  interest  is 
reached,  and  it  is  secured  usually  by  introducing  descrip- 
tive details  or  explanations.  Sometimes  suspense  is  secured 
by  beginning  at  some  point  along  in  the  story,  the  events 


74  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

leading  up  to  the  first  scene  being  afterwards  introduced  as 
an  explanation,  or  as  a  part  of  a  subsequent  conversation 
between  two  of  the  characters.  Description  detains  the 
attention,  but  it  must  be  relevant,  or  its  introduction  is  re- 
sented by  the  reader.  In  most  parts  of  a  narrative,  how- 
ever, movement  rather  than  suspense  is  desirable,  and  this 
is  secured  by  reducing  or  omitting  descriptions,  by  hurry- 
ing over  details  and  condensing  lesser  actions  and  events  as 
much  as  possible.  Especially  is  movement  desirable  when 
the  culmination  or  principal  action  is  reached,  and,  in  gen- 
eral, those  parts  of  a  narrative  which  portray  rapid  action 
should  show  it  by  a  hurried  manner  of  treatment. 

(7)    Plausibility  and  Verisimilitude. 

This  topic  has  to  do  mainly  with  imaginative  narratives. 
Here  the  story  must  bear  the  marks  of  reality  and  likeli- 
hood or  it  fails  to  secure  attention.  This  does  not  mean 
that  long  explanations  are  necessary  ;  these  too  often  spoil 
a  climax  for  which  they  are  intended  to  prepare  the  reader ; 
nor  does  it  preclude  <  surprises/  for  these  are  among  the 
most  real  and  likely  things  of  life.  Rather  does  it  involve 
a  more  careful  planning  and  outlining  of  details  at  the 
outset  and  a  more  careful  handling  of  the  phraseology  of 
description  and  narration. 

(8)    Helps  to  Narration. 

It  has  already  been  indicated  that  description  is  fre- 
quently used  in  narratives  of  all  kinds.  Usually  descrip- 
tion forms  the  introduction  of  a  scene  or  story,  giving  it  a 
time  and  a  place  and  an  air  of  reality.  Character  descrip- 
tions and  portrait  sketches  are  also  employed  in  narratives, 
and  their  use  is  obvious  both  for  detaining  the  attention 
upon  the  chief  characters  of  interest,  and  for  aiding  in  the 


The  Related  Paragraph.  75 

appreciation  of  the  subsequent  actions  of  the  characters. 
Contrasts  of  characters  are  another  help  to  narration :  two 
unlike  characters  serving  to  set  each  other  off  and  to  give 
greater  distinction  to  both.  Contrasts  of  scenes  are  also 
helpful :  scenes  which  are  full  of  action  alternating  with 
scenes  of  a  comparatively  quiet  character.  Transitions  are 
everywhere  important  but  nowhere  more  so  than  in  narra- 
tion. When  to  indicate  plainly  a  change  of  scene,  and 
when  to  leave  the  change  to  be  inferred  is  a  problem  best 
solved  by  noticing  the  practice  of  the  standard  writers  of 
narratives.  Episodes  afford  relief  to  a  reader  when  they 
are  introduced  into  a  long  narrative  of  intense  action,  but 
are  elsewhere  out  of  place :  the  short  story  and  the  narra- 
tive of  adventure  are  hindered  rather  than  helped  by  the 
introduction  of  episodes. 

Subjects  for  longer  essays  in  narration  may  be  selected  from  Appendix  G.    Sugges- 
tions of  a  useful  exercise  in  reporting  will  be  found  in  Appendix  F. 


(c)    THE  EXPOSITORY  ESSAY. 

Exposition  has  been  defined  as  "  such  an  analysis  of  a  gen- 
eral term  as  will  make  clear  to  the  mind  the  general  notion 
of  which  it  is  the  sign."  It  takes  the  general  term  Music, 
for  instance,  and  seeks  to  explain  and  set  forth  clearly  what 
music  is,  what  are  its  essential  qualities,  how  much  it  in- 
cludes, what  it  excludes,  how  it  differs  from  other  fine  arts, 
into  what  kinds  it  is  divided,  —  in  short,  exposition  seeks 
to  discover  and  set  forth  an  adequate  definition  of  music,  to 
give  a  logical  division  into  kinds,  and  to  define  and  explain 
the  various  kinds.  Or,  it  takes  a  general  proposition  such 
as  "  Education  is  beneficial  in  all  the  pursuits  of  life,"  and, 
without  assuming  the  truth  or  falsity  of  the  proposition, 
it  seeks  to  answer  the  question,  What  is  education  ?  to 
analyze  it  into  its  elements,  and  to  classify  the  pursuits  of 
life,  leaving  to  argument  the  work  of  determining  whether 


76  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

the  proposition  is  true  or  false.  Thus,  education  having 
been  defined  as  training,  the  various  kinds  of  training  hav- 
ing been  determined,  and  the  pursuits  of  life  having  been 
classified,  the  results  of  the  exposition  of  this  proposition 
might  be  outlined  as  follows :  — 

f  the  mind  1        f  the  languages  1  f  the  professions  ^ 

Education,  or  I 

'  the  heart  ^  in  J  the  sciences      \  is  beneficial  in  J  the  trades 


[  the  body  j        [  the  arts  j  |  and  commerce. 


1.    Kinds  and  Uses. 

It  is  evident  that  the  kind  of  exposition  illustrated  above 
is  useful  mainly  for  planning  and  outlining  a  subject.  It 
is  concerned  with  laying  the  ground-work  for  subsequent 
discussion,  description,  or  narration.  It  analyzes,  defines, 
divides,  and  classifies ;  it  plays  an  important  part  in  plan- 
ning every  essay  that  is  written,  whether  in  description,  nar- 
ration, or  argumentation ;  and  for  that  reason  it  will  be 
treated  under  the  headings  that  follow :  Analysis  by  Parti- 
tion; Analysis  by  Division;  Exposition  by  Definition; 
Exposition  by  Similarity  and  Contrast,  —  all  of  these  being 
presented  mainly  as  helps  to  planning  and  outlining  themes. 
These  methods  may  all  be  included  under  the  single  desig- 
nation of  Scientific  Exposition. 

There  is,  however,  another  kind  of  exposition,  of  a  less 
rigidly  scientific  character,  which  we  shall  call  Popular 
Exposition,  and  under  which  may  be  included  the  Didactic 
Essay,  the  Conversational  Essay,  and  the  Critical  Essay. 
These  we  shall  discuss  under  the  headings  indicated,  after 
taking  up  the  various  kinds  of  Scientific  Exposition. 

2.    Scientific  Exposition. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  chief  use  of  scientific 
exposition  to  the  student  is  the  practice  which  it  gives  him 


The  Related  Paragraph.  77 

in  outlining  and  planning  subjects  for  composition.  The 
sense  for  outlining  and  planning  is  at  the  basis  of  essay 
structure  of  all  kinds,  and  the  student  should  carefully 
perform  all  of  the  exercises  provided  under  the  following 
heads,  with  the  purpose  of  improving  his  sense  for  logical 
outlining. 

(1)   Analysis  by  Partition. 

In  partition,  the  theme  is  a  whole  made  up  of  parts,  and 
the  work  of  exposition  demands  that  this  whole  be  sepa- 
rated or  analyzed  into  its  component  parts.  Thus,  taking 
the  theme  'Tree,'  partition  separates  it  into  root,  trunk, 
branches,  and  fruit ;  or,  on  another  principle,  separates  it 
into  woody  fiber  and  sap.  It  takes  a  theme  like  'The  Ad- 
vantages of  Railways '  and  separates  it,  on  one  principle,  as 
follows:  1.  Advantages  to  Individuals:  (a)  in  widening 
their  knowledge  by  travel,  (b)  in  widening  the  field  of 
their  social  activity,  (c)  in  widening  and  extending  their 
business  and  commercial  field.  2.  Advantages  to  the  Pub- 
lic as  a  whole  :  (a)  in  uniting  remote  parts  of  the  country, 
(b)  in  fostering  the  development  of  the  country's  material 
resources,  (c)  in  giving  the  parts  of  a  country  one  political 
life. 

The  work  of  partition  stops  with  the  plan  or  the  outline. 
Treatment  of  the  various  headings  of  the  outline  may  be 
by  any  of  the  processes  of  narration,  description,  and  argu- 
mentation, or  by  the  methods  of  exposition  to  be  mentioned 
further  on.  The  headings  of  the  outline  in  partition  need 
not  cover  the  whole  subject.  Much  more  might  be  said 
on  the  subject  outlined  above  than  is  indicated  in  the  out- 
line. Only  so  much  of  any  topic  needs  to  be  parted  off 
as  will  serve  to  fulfill  the  purpose  which  the  writer  has 
in  view. 

Other  outlines  in  partition  may  be  found  in  Appendix  A  12.  A  list  of  topics  and 
propositions  to  be  outlined  by  partition  inay  be  found  in  Appendix  0  1. 


7  8  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

(2)   Analysis  by  Division. 

In  division  the  theme  is  separated  into  similar  parts. 
Division  would  take  the  theme  'Tree7  (which  partition 
separates  into  the  component  parts  of  root,  trunk,  branches, 
and  fruit)  and  would  separate  it  into  the  various  kinds, 
classes,  varieties  of  trees.  It  takes  a  theme  like  '  The  Leg- 
islative Government  in  the  United  States ?  and  separates  it 
into  the  '  House  of  Representatives,  the  Senate,  and  the 
Veto  Power  of  the  President.' 

In  dividing  a  theme,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  main 
headings  of  the  outline  be  selected  on  a  single  principle. 
Thus,  taking  the  subject  '  Kinds  of  Sentences/  it  may  be 
divided  on  one  principle  into  '  simple,  complex,  compound  ' ; 
on  another,  into  '  long  and  short J ;  on  another,  into  '  peri- 
odic and  loose.'  To  divide  sentences  into  '  complex,  short, 
and  periodic'  would  obviously  lead  to  nothing  but  confu- 
sion, as  more  than  one  principle  of  division  would  be  intro- 
duced. So,  when  a  recent  writer  speaks  of  '  Our  Duties ' 
as  i  personal,  religious,  and  political/  the  same  error  of  a 
double  principle  of  division  is  presented,  though  here  it  is 
less  obvious,  on  account  of  the  character  of  the  subject. 
It  is  apparent,  however,  when  we  consider  that  our  religious 
and  political  duties  are  personal  duties.  This  illustrates, 
also,  the  violation  of  another  law  of  division :  No  one  of  the 
headings  should  of  itself  cover  the  whole  subject  to  be 
divided. 

However,  the  theme  may  be  divided  on  one  principle  for 
the  main  headings  of  the  outline,  while  the  groups  of  sub- 
headings under  each  of  the  main  heads  may  follow  entirely 
different  principles  of  division.  This  is  illustrated  by  the 
outline  (in  Appendix  A  12)  of  the  subject:  History  of  the 
Temporal  Power  of  the  Pope.  Here  the  main  headings  are 
chronological,  while  the  sub-heads  follow  different  principles 
of  division. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  79 

Whatever  principle  of  division  be  chosen,  it  is  important 
that  the  headings  be  distinct,  and  do  not  over-lap  one  an- 
other. If  the  main  headings  of  the  outline  are  clearly  dis- 
tinguished from  one  another,  the  effect  on  the  essay  will  be 
to  give  the  principal  ideas  their  due  prominence.  The 
hearer  or  reader  will  be  able  to  discover  the  plan  of  the 
essay  and  to  state  to  himself  the  main  points  as  the  essay 
is  heard  or  read. 

A  single  reading  of  Ruskin's  Fors  Clavigera,  Letter  V.,  in  which 
he -arraigns  the  accepted  political  economy  of  the  time,  discovers  the 
following  outline :  — 

1.  The  essentials  which  ought  to  be  secured  by  a  true  Political  Economy, 
(a)  Material  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  Pure  air;  (2)  Water;  (3)  Earth.    (Advantages  of  each.) 
(6)  Immaterial  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  Admiration  ;  (2)  Hope ;  (3)  Love.     (Each  is  defined  and  its  value  stated.) 

2.  What  under  modern  Political  Economy  is  done  with  these. 

(a)  With  the  Material  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  The  air  is  vitiated  by  the  smoke  of  factories  and  towns. 

(2)  The  water  of  rivers  is  made  foul  by  sewage. 

(3)  The  earth  is  made  a  deadly  battle-ground  instead  of  a  life-giving  harvest- 

field. 

(b)  With  the  Immaterial  things  essential  to  life. 

(1)  Instead  of  Admiration  for  the  past  there  is  contempt  and  conceit. 

(2)  Instead  of  Hope  there  is  lack  of  spirit  and  of  patriotism. 

(3)  Instead  of  Love,  the  constant  instinct  of  man  is  assumed  by  Political 

Economy  to  be  the  desire  to  defraud  his  neighbor. 

It  is  also  important  that  the  successive  divisions  of  the 
subject  follow  one  another  in  close  order,  each  division  of 
the  outline  leading  naturally  to  the  one  that  comes  next. 
A  carefully  divided  outline  will  usually  ensure  unity  and 
sequence  in  the  essay.  This  close  order,  or  sequence,  will 
be  secured  (1)  if  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  headings  are 
felt  to  be  near  to  one  another.  The  outline  on  the  Uses  of 
Novel-Reading  (Appendix  A  12)  illustrates.  Here  each 
heading  suggests  the  next.  Such  arrangement  is  by  Con- 
tiguity. (2)  A  second  principle  of  arranging  outline  divi- 
sions is  the  principle  of  Cause  and  Effect.  No  tendency  of 
the  mind  is  stronger  than  that  which  impels  us  to  seek  the 


80  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

cause  of  an  existing  fact  or  to  trace  the  consequences  of  a 
past  action.  Some  of  the  best  histories  are  constructed  in 
the  main  on  this  plan :  — 

(a)  Statement  of  a  group  of  facts  or  events. 

(b)  Causes  of  these  facts  or  events. 

(c)  Their  effects 

(1)  Upon  those  immediately  involved, 

(2)  Upon  the  nation  as  a  whole. 

The  same  plan  is  then  applied  to  another  group  of  facts  or 
events.  See  outline  of  a  lecture  by  Dr.  Washington  Gladden 
on  'The  Modern  Cerberus'  (Appendix  A  12).  (3)  A  third 
principle  of  arranging  outline  divisions  is  the  principle  of 
Contrast.  Two  clearly  contrasted  notions  may  be  placed  in 
immediate  succession.  This  principle  will  be  treated  under 
the  heading  i  Exposition  by  Contrast/  in  a  succeeding 
paragraph.  (See  p.  81.) 

Finally,  the  general  arrangement  of  the  headings  and  sub- 
headings of  the  outline  should  be  in  the  order  of  climax, 
proceeding  from  the  less  to  the  more  important  and  im- 
pressive. 

Other  outlines  in  division  may  be  found  in  Appendix  A  12.  A  list  of  topics  and 
propositions  to  be  outlined  by  division  may  be  found  in  Appendix  C  1. 


(3)    Exposition  by  Definition. 

A  whole  essay  may  be  devoted  to  ascertaining  the  mean- 
ing of  a  term  which  is  not  generally  understood,  or  which, 
is  understood  in  different  ways  by  different  people.  Thus, 
John  Stuart  Mill  devotes  a  whole  exposition  to  finding  the 
meaning  of  the  term  ' Nature7  (Mill:  Three  Essays  on 
Religion,  p.  3),  Sir  William  Hamilton  to  finding  the  mean- 
ing of  the  term  ' Philosophy'  (see  p.  52).  Many  ex- 
pressions in  common  use,  such  as  i  Liberty/  <  Equality/ 
'  Freedom  of  the  Press/  '  Education/  '  Civilization/  '  Cul- 


The  Related  Paragraph.  81 

ture/  etc.,  require  careful  definition  to  test  especially  the 
correctness  of  the  application  which  is  often  given  to  them. 
A  proposition  is  defined  by  the  definition  of  its  principal 
•terms.  The  careful  definition  of  a  proposition  will  some- 
times suggest  a  good  plan  of  treating  the  subject,  and  will 
furnish  the  basis  of  the  essay-outline.  Thus  the  plan  of  the 
first  part  of  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Hallarn's  History  is  fur- 
nished by  Macaulay's  definition  of  history,  given  in  the  first 
sentence  of  the  essay.  This  definition  of  history  as  <a  com- 
pound of  poetry  and  philosophy'  determines  the  division 
of  historical  writings  into  historical  novels  and  critical  and 
argumentative  histories.  Each  of  these  two  classes  is  then 
given  thorough  treatment.  So,  too,  the  definition  of  the 
term  '  Education '  in  the  proposition  given  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  discussion  (p.  75)  suggests  the  divisions  of 
the  subject  there  given  as  the  outline-plan  to  be  followed. 

The  student  will  find  it  profitable  to  attempt  an  adequate  definition  of  one  or  more 
of  the  terms  mentioned  above. 


(4)   Exposition  by  Similarity  and  Contrast. 

An  idea  may  be  made  clear  by  comparing  it  with  similar 
ideas.  An  animal  may  be  described  to  one  who  has  never 
seen  it  by  comparing  it  and  contrasting  it  with  a  similar 
animal  which  he  has  seen.  It  is  by  noticing  likenesses  and 
differences  that  new  knowledge  is  acquired.  Many  of  the 
most  important  ideas  in  religion  are  conveyed  by  this 
method  of  exposition.  Whenever  particular  examples  are 
given  to  show  what  is  meant  by  an  abstract  theme,  and 
whenever  comparisons  are  drawn,  it  is  on  the  principle  of 
exposition  by  similarity.  We  gain  an  idea  of  the  virtue, 
heroism,  by  particular  examples  of  heroism,  and  the  effect 
is  made  still  stronger  by  examples  of  cowardice. 

Themes  to  be  outlined  in  this  subject  may  be  found  in  Appendix  C  1.  Outlines  in 
comparison  and  contrast  will  be  found  in  Appendix  A  12. 


82  Paragraph  -  Writing. 


3.  Popular  Exposition. 

Strictly  scientific  exposition  is  possible  only  for  a  master 
of  thought.  Modified  and  simplified  forms  of  scientific 
exposition  may,  however,  be  attempted  with  success  by 
writers  of  more  limited  powers.  Indeed,  most  of  the  essays 
written  by  students  are  forms  of  exposition  of  a  less  rigidly 
scientific  kind.  We  shall  examine  briefly  three  of  the  most 
common  types  of  popular  exposition. 

(1)   The  Didactic  Essay. 

This  is  the  type  most  frequently  attempted.  It  takes  a 
clearly-stated  proposition  as  its  subject  and  attempts  to 
establish  it  by  one  or  more  of  the  various  means  of  develop- 
ment already  mentioned,  definition,  contrast,  explanation, 
illustration,  particular  instances,  proofs,  and  enforcement. 
In  the  structure  of  such  essays  a  careful  plan  and  outline, 
following  some  one  of  the  methods  mentioned  under  Scien- 
tific Exposition,  is  essential.  Most  of  the  essays  that  appear 
in  such  reviews  as  the  North  American,  the  Forum,  Popular 
Science  Monthly,  the  Contemporary,  and  the  Fortnightly  be- 
long to  this  class.  The  essays  of  Macaulay,  De  Quincey, 
and  Bagehot,  for  the  most  part,  belong  here.  Selecting  a 
subject  within  one's  powers,  stating  the  subject  clearly  and 
accurately,  careful  thinking,  gaining  information  by  reading 
and  conversation,  and  outlining  before  beginning  the  work 
of  composition  are  of  the  greatest  importance  in  writing 
essays  of  this  kind. 

The  following  directions  may  be  of  service  to  the  student :  — 

(1)  Select  a  subject  in  which  you  are  likely  to  be  interested  and  on 
which  you  can  gain  information. 

(2)  State  this  subject  in  the  form  of  a  proposition. 

(3)  Surround  the  subject  with  questions.     Think  about  these  ques- 
tions and  seek  the  answers,  when  you  need  help,  from  books  and  by 
conversations  with  well-informed  persons. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  88 

(4)  Do  not  confine  your  investigations  to  one  book  ;  read  all  within 
reach  that  treat  of  the  subject ;  learn  to  use  the  indexes  of  books. 

(5)  Take  but  few  notes  while  reading,  and  let  those  be  brief  and  in 
your  own  words.    Keep  a  list  of  authorities  consulted. 

(6)  Determine  upon  such  a  plan  of  treatment  as  your  view  of  the 
subject  demands.    If  further  thought  and  reading  modify  your  views, 
revise  your  plan  accordingly. 

(7)  Make  an  outline  before  writing.     (See  Analysis  by  Division.) 

(8)  Omit  formal  introduction  and  conclusion  unless  they  are  clearly 
necessary. 

Subjects  for  didactic  essays  may  be  selected  from  Appendix  G.    Specimen  outlines 
are  given  in  Appendix  A  12.    Subjects  for  outlining  are  given  in  Appendix  C  1. 


(2)   The  Conversational  Essay. 

The  conversational  essay  is  illustrated  in  the  essays  of 
Charles  Lamb,  Steele,  Addison,  Holmes,  and  Thackeray. 
It  is  generally  loose  in  structure,  and  gives  the  personal 
impressions,  whims,  and  fancies  of  the  essayist  in  the  easy 
confidential  tone  of  conversation.  The  subjects  chosen  are 
usually  of  a  light  character  and  a  whimsical  view  is  not 
infrequently  presented.  To  write  good  essays  of  this  type 
requires  considerable  original  talent,  or  long  training,  or  the 
combination  of  the  two;  for,  in  spite  of  their  seeming 
irregularity,  the  best  of  these  essays  are  underlaid  by  a 
carefully  planned  framework  and  guided  in  their  erratic 
flights  by  a  profound  sense  of  artistic  form.  The  beginner, 
therefore,  until  he  has  learned  to  lay  the  solid  foundations 
of  essay-structure,  or  has  developed  to  some  degree  a  natural 
sense  for  structural  unity,  will  do  well  to  avoid  the  writing 
of  essays  of  this  character. 

Subjects  for  conversational  essays  will  be  found  in  Appendix  G  3,  at  the  close  of 
the  list. 

(3)    The  Critical  Essay. 

The  aim  of  the  critical  essay  is  to  estimate  the  value  of 
a  work  of  literature  or  art  and  to  judge  it  by  the  principles 


84  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs,  pointing  out  both  excel- 
lences and  defects.  It  is  evident  that  real  criticism  implies 
wide  and  thorough  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  critic  as 
well  as  a  nature  capable  of  entering  with  sympathetic  and 
appreciative  interest  into  the  thoughts  and  feelings  of 
others,  while  at  the  same  time  preserving  his  own  individu- 
ality of  judgment  and  opinion.  The  works  of  Ruskin  give 
the  best-known  (if  not  the  best)  art  criticism;  while  in 
literary  criticism  the  names  of  Arnold,  Dowden,  Stephen, 
Lowell,  Stedman,  and  Pater  are  most  familiar. 

A  simple  form  of  the  critical  essay,  and  one  of  the  most 
useful  to  the  student  of  literature,  is  the  review  of  some 
book  which  he  has  read.  The  following  general  plan  sug- 
gests some  of  the  matters  of  which  such  an  essay  may  treat. 
In  a  single  essay,  it  is  not  likely  that  all  the  points  enumer- 
ated in  the  plan  below  would  need  to  be  mentioned ;  only 
those  points  would  require  mention  of  which  the  work 
furnishes  striking  and  peculiar  illustrations.  The  need  of 
condensing  the  description  of  the  plot  and  of  the  characters 
must  be  kept  in  mind :  a  due  regard  to  the  law  of  propor- 
tion requires  this.  The  order  of  the  points  in  the  following 
plan  is  probably  not  the  best  arrangement  for  the  criticism 
of  some  works.  Each  work  will  require  its  own  method 
of  treatment ;  the  following  plan  is  intended  to  be  merely 
suggestive  of  points  for  discussion  in  essays  of  this  kind:  — 

(a)  Historical: 

(1)  Sources  of  the  work. 

(2)  Cause,  Occasion,  Purpose  —  Dim  or  apparent? 

(3)  Circumstances  under  which  the  work  was  produced 

(4)  Eelation  of  the  work  to  its  author. 

(5)  Eelation  to  the  time  in  which  it  was  written. 

(6)  Effect  of  the  work  upon  the  public. 
(6)  Descriptive: 

(1)  Brief  sketch  of  the  subject-matter  —  Plot. 

(2)  Characters  —  Their  qualities  as  persons,  relative  importance,  relation  to  one 

another,  contrasting-  characters,  what  each  is  intended  to  bring  out. 

(3)  Art  in  presenting  scenes  and  characters  —  Illustrate. 

(4)  Literary  Qualities  —  Each  to  be  illustrated  by  quotations  or  explanation. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  85 

(a)  External  Form : 

(1)  Words— Peculiar  forms,  meanings,  use.    Their  euphony.    In  general,  sim- 

ple or  generic  ? 

(2)  Phrases  —  Idiomatic  or  foreign  ?    If  foreign,  justify  or  criticise  use. 

(3)  Sentences  —  Simple  or  involved?    Smooth  or  rough?    Compact  or  loose? 

Criticise  order  of  sentence  elements,  if  unusual. 

(4)  Figures  —  Numerous  ?    Kinds  ?    Useful  or  ornamental  ? 

(5)  Paragraphs  —  Attention  paid  to  structure  and  connection  ? 

(6)  Qualities  of  Style  —  Simplicity,  clearness,  strength,  pathos,  melody,  harmony, 

taste. 

(6)  Internal  Structure  — Description,  Narration,  Exposition,  or  Argument?  Are 
the  laws  of  unity,  selection,  proportion,  sequence,  variety,  observed  ? 
Quote  in  illustration. 

(5)  Qualities  of  mind  displayed  — Emotional,  intellectual,  moral,  or  spiritual? 
(c)  Critical: 

(1)  Is  the  evident  object  of  the  work  attained  ? 

(2)  Comparison  of  this  with  other  works  of  the  same  author.    Their  rank. 

(3)  Rank  among  works  of  the  same  kind  written  by  others. 

(4)  Its  value  and  its  lesson. 

(5)  Judge  the  work.by  the  best  of  its  kind,  by  the  laws  of  its  process  and  by  literary 

laws  in  general. 


4.    The  Paraphrase  and  the  Abstract. 

The  paraphrase  and  the  abstract  are  most  naturally 
classified  as  forms  of  exposition.  Although  they  merely 
reproduce  an  author's  thought  and  add  no  new  idea  to  the 
original,  they  nevertheless  require  the  exercise  of  the  stu- 
dent's powers  of  analyzing,  dividing,  defining,  grouping,  and 
explaining,  in  the  same  way  in  which  scientific  exposition 
requires  the  exercise  of  those  powers. 

The  paraphrase  is  a  reproduction  in  which  the  same 
thought  is  expressed  in  equivalent  words.  Its  object  is 
to  make  the  thought  of  any  selection  clearer  and  better 
adapted  to  a  given  class  of  hearers  or  readers,  than  it  was 
in  its  original  form.  Practice  in  paraphrasing  selections  of 
prose  and  poetry,  whose  thought  is  already  clear,  will  give 
facility  of  expression  and  variety  of  phraseology ;  but  the 
chief  value  of  paraphrasing  appears  when  it  is  applied  to 
selections  whose  thought  is  more  or  less  obscure  and  diffi- 
cult of  apprehension,  —  thought  which  needs  explanation 
by  re-statement  in  simpler  terms. 


86  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

The  following  rules  are  to  be  observed  in  paraphrasing : 

1.  Do  not  change  the  thought  of  the  original.     Change  the  form 
only.     Follow  the  thought  closely.     Reproduce  the  meaning  of  the 
figures,  in  plain  language. 

2.  Make  all  changes  in  the  interest  of  clearness.     The  mere  sub- 
stitution of  definitions  for  difficult  words  is  not  sufficient :   it  some- 
times leads  to  ludicrous  effects.    The  whole  thought  must  be  re-stated. 

3.  Try  to  maintain  the  dignity  and  spirit  of  the  original.     Do  not 
weaken  the  thought.     If  the  original  is  poetry,  guard  against  inad- 
vertent rhymes  in  the  paraphrase. 

4.  Study  the  use  of  synonyms.     Sometimes  changes  in  the  whole 
sentence  are  necessitated  by  the  use  of  one  phrase  for  another.     In 
some  places,  it  may  be  needful  to  leave  the  original  unchanged. 

The  abstract  is  a  condensed  statement  of  another's  thought. 
It  presents  the  main  ideas  and  follows  closely  the  structu- 
ral plan  of  the  original,  but  omits  unimportant  or  illustra- 
tive details.  The*  abstract  is  an  outline  in  which  the 
headings  are  stated  in  complete  sentences  and  presented  in 
a  connected  discourse.  The  main  problem  in  abstracting 
is  the  problem  of  determining  what  are  the  main  thoughts 
and  of  selecting  these  for  presentation. 

The  most  important  rules  of  the  abstract  are  as  follows :  — 

1.  Give  nothing  in  the  abstract  that  is  not  in  the  original. 

2.  Discover,  by  a  careful  reading  of  the  original,  the  author's  plan 
or  outline  and  follow  this  closely  in  the  abstract. 

3.  Give  only  the  main  ideas,  omitting  or  condensing  all  illustra- 
tions, repetitions,  and  explanations,  making  the  author's  plan  of  treat- 
ment and  his  conclusions  stand  out  plainly. 

4.  Observe  the  law  of    proportion.     Condense  all  parts   of  the 
original  on  the  same  scale.     There  is  a  danger   of  reproducing  too 
many  details  in  the  early  part  and  of  condensing  too  much  in  the  lat- 
ter part. 

5.  The  author's  language  may  be  used  a  little  more  freely  than  in 
the  paraphrase  ;  yet  the  author's  language  should  be  avoided  when  his 
thought  can  be  precisely  expressed  in  other  words. 

6.  Make  complete  and  connected  sentences  and  aim  at  clearness, 
accuracy,  force,  and  plainness  of  statement. 

Titles  of  works  and  parts  of  works  suitable  for  use  in  paraphrasing  and  abstracting 
are  given  in  Appendix  C  3. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  87 

(d)  THE  ARGUMENTATIVE  ESSAY. 

The  argumentative  essay  devotes  itself  to  proving  the 
truth  or  falsity  of  a  proposition.  "An  argument,"  says 
Bain,  "  is  a  fact,  principle,  or  set  of  facts  or  of  principles 
adduced  as  evidence  of  some  other  fact  or  principle."  To 
illustrate,  the  fact  that  a  large  proportion  of  the  prisoners 
in  our  penitentiaries  are  ignorant  men  is  adduced  as  evi- 
dence of  the  principle  that  ignorance  breeds  crime.  It  is 
evident  that  to  be  of  value  as  an  argument  the  statement 
as  to  the  large  proportion  of  ignorant  men  among  the  pris- 
oners in  the  penitentiaries  must,  first,  either  be  admitted  to 
be  true  or  must  be  shown  to  be  true  by  statistics  ;  secondly, 
the  same  statement  must  also  be  admitted  or  shown  by  sta- 
tistics to  have  been  generally  true  for  a  long  period  and 
likely  to  be  true  in  the  future.  Both  these  conditions  are 
essential  to  a  valid  argument. 


1.  The  Proposition. 

The  proposition  to  be  proved  should  be  clearly  and 
accurately  stated  in  the  affirmative  form.  A  close  analysis 
of  the  terms  of  a  proposition  will  sometimes  indicate  a  line 
of  argument  to  be  pursued  and  will  very  frequently  furnish 
a  good  approach  to  the  main  discussion.  (See  The  Exposi- 
tory Essay  [p.  75],  introductory  paragraph  and  illustra- 
tion.) 

A  complex  proposition  may  be  proved  by  dividing  it  into 
its  constituent  propositions  and  proving  each  of  these. 
The  proposition  "  Judges  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote "  would  require  such  a  division,  since  the  considera- 
tions which  tend  to  make  the  proposed  step  desirable  are 
different  for  different  classes  of  judges,  and  the  possible 
objections  to  the  proposition  are  different  for  the  different 
classes  also. 


88  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Thus  the  division  might  be 


Judges  < 


of  U.  S.  courts 
of  State  courts 
of  County  courts 
of  Police  courts 
etc. 


>  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 


2.  Classification  and  Kinds  of  Arguments. 

Proofs  applied  immediately  to  the  establishment  of  the 
proposition  are  called  direct  proofs.  Proof  is  indirect 
when  it  is  applied  to  the  overthrow  of  objections ;  indirect 
proof  is  called  refutation.  This  classification  is  based  on 
the  purpose  to  which  proofs  are  applied,  on  the  use  made 
of  them.  In  the  outline  from  Burke  (see  Appendix  A  12) 
the  second  group  of  proofs  are  indirect.  Whether  direct  or 
indirect,  proofs  are  of  three  kinds :  a  priori,  signs,  and 
examples. 

(1)  In  a  priori  proofs   (sometimes  called   proofs   from 
antecedent   probability)   the   reasoning   is   from   cause   to 
effect,  or  from  a  general  law  to  the  results  of  that  law. 

The  prevalence  of  intemperance  in  a  community  is  an  a  priori  proof  of  the  existence 
of  wretchedness  in  that  community,  because  intemperance  is  a  cause  of  wretchedness. 

Bountiful  crops  throughout  the  country  furnish  an  a  priori  proof  that  business  will 
be  good,  since  we  know  that  these  are  a  potent  cause  of  general  prosperity.  Arguments 
in  regard  to  future  events  are  always  a  priori. 

General  bad  character  in  an  accuser,  long-standing  hatred  on  his  part  toward  the 
accused,  the  existence  of  a  wicked  motive  in  making  the  accusation,  is  a  priori  proof 
that  his  accusation  is  false. 

The  validity  of  an  a  priori  proof  depends  upon  the  cer- 
tainty that  the  cause  assigned  is  adequate  and  operative. 
If  it  can  be  shown  that  the  cause  assigned  is  inadequate  or 
inoperative,  or  hindered  from  producing  its  natural  result, 
the  argument  is  impaired  to  that  extent. 

(2)  Signs  are  proofs  from  an  effect  to  a  condition  so 
connected  with  the  effect  that  the  existence  of  the  effect 
implies  the  existence  of  the  condition. 


The  Related  Paragraph.  89 

Widespread  ignorance,  pauperism,  and  crime  in  a  country  are  signs  going  to  show 
the  falsity  of  the  proposition  that  that  country  is  ready  for  self-government. 

Blood-stains  upon  the  clothing  of  a  man  accused  of  murder  are  signs  of  his  guilt. 

Signs  are  merely  indications  or  circumstances,  and  are 
always  open  to  doubt.  *  What  is  known  as  circumstantial 
evidence  is  a  collection  of  a  priori  proofs  and  signs.  The 
most  suspicious  circumstances  are  often  wholly  inconclusive. 
If,  for  instance,  the  blood-stains  upon  the  clothing  of  a  man 
accused  of  murder  are  clearly  accounted  for  in  some  other 
way  than  by  the  supposition  of  guilt,  doubt  is  cast  upon 
the  validity  of  the  argument. 

The  same  signs  are  frequently  employed  for  opposite 
ends.  One  writer  regards  strikes  as  signs  that  the  influence 
of  trades  unions  is  pernicious ;  another  quotes  the  same 
phenomena  as  signs  that  the  trades  unions  have  given  the 
working  classes  power  to  assert  and,  in  some  cases,  to 
maintain  their  rights. 

The  more  numerous  the  signs,  the  greater  their  value  as 
arguments  for  the  truth  of  a  proposition. 

(3)  Authority,  or  what  books   and  competent  persons 
have  said,  irrespective  of  particular  cases,  as  to  the  truth 
or  falsity  of  a  proposition,  and  testimony,  or  the  evidence 
of  witnesses,  have  been  classified  as  signs  by  some  writers ; 
but  it  is  clear  that  authority  and  testimony  may  be  a  priori 
proof,  or  signs,  or  proof  by  examples,  according   to   the 
nature  of  the  proof  given  by  the  authority  or  by  the  wit- 
ness testifying.     When  authorities  are  quoted  to  support  a 
statement,  reference  should  be  made  to  the  edition,  volume, 
and  page ;  and  in  general  only  those  authorities  should  be 
referred  to  who  are  acknowledged  to  be  competent  to  speak 
on  the  subject,  and  whose  works,  if  quoted,  are  accessible. 
Concurrence  of  authorities  or  of  witnesses  as  to  the  truth 
of  any  matter  gives  special  force  to  this  kind  of  argument. 

(4)  Examples  of  the  truth  of  a  proposition  are  a  form 
of  proof  which  gains  its  power  on  the  principle  that  what 


90  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

has  once  happened  under  certain  conditions  may  be  expected 
to  happen  again  under  like  conditions.  The  use  of  ex- 
amples as  proof  and  illustration  has  been  given  (see  The 
Isolated  Paragraph,  p.  28) .  When  the  number  of  examples 
adduced  is  sufficiently  large  to  convince  us  that  the  whole 
class  to  which  they  belong  possess  the  same  property,  the 
proof  is  called  Induction.  If,  for  instance,  we  find  that 
several  hundreds  of  roses  have  the  same  number  of  petals 
and  stamens,  and  conclude  that  all  roses  of  the  same  class 
have  the  same  number  of  petals  and  stamens  as  those 
examined,  we  have  a  case  of  Induction  (see  also  The 
Isolated  Paragraph,  p.  50).  The  number  of  examples 
necessary  to  make  the  proof  of  a  proposition  conclusive 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  proposition  to  be  proved, 
and  must  be  decided  in  each  case  as  it  arises.  One  of  the 
most  frequent  of  faults  in  writing  is  a  hasty  generalization 
from  too  few  examples.  It  is  evidently  not  sufficient  to 
cite  the  cases  of  Homer  and  Milton  in  proof  of  the  proposi- 
tion that  blindness  induces  the  growth  of  the  poetic  spirit 
in  a  man.  A  form  of  the  argument  by  example  is  that 
which  asserts  that,  if  a  principle  is  true  in  an  admitted 
case,  much  more  will  it  be  true  in  the  case  cited  when  the 
conditions  are  more  favorable.  This  is  known  as  the  argu- 
ment a  fortiori. 

(5)  In  regard  to  refutation,  the  following  suggestions 
may  be  useful :  — 

(a)  Often  there  are  valid  objections  to  a  proposed 
plan.  These  should  be  candidly  admitted,  but  explained 
either  as  necessarily  incident  to  any  plan,  or  as  less  likely 
to  be  operative  under  the  plan  proposed  than  under  any 
other. 

(6)  An  objection  should  be  fairly  stated  before  its  re- 
futation is  undertaken.     Understatement  of   an  objection 
indicates  inability  to  answer  it  fairly. 

(c)    A  weak  objection  should  be  disposed  of  briefly.    Too 


The  Related  Paragraph.  91 

much  labor   expended   on  a  weak   objection   may   secure 
greater  attention  to  the  objection  than  it  deserves. 

(d)  The  force  of  a  proof  by  example  will  be  destroyed 
if  it  is  shown  that  the  cause  which  operated  to  produce 
the  result  in  the  example  cited,  is  different  from  the  cause 
assigned. 

(e)  An  argument  is  refuted  if  it  is  shown  that  it  does 
not  follow  from  the  facts  on  which  it  is  based. 

(/)  In  some  cases  a  proposition  is  shown  to  be  untrue 
by  reducing  it  to  an  alternative,  and  disproving  each  of  the 
two  possible  cases.  Thus  the  proposition  that  "Convict 
labor  deprives  free  laborers  of  work  "  is  answered :  — 

These  convicts,  before  they  were  imprisoned,  were  either  workers  or  idlers.  If  idlers, 
they  had  to  be  supported  at  the  expense  of  free  labor,  and  to  make  them  work  while  in 
prison  relieves  free  labor  of  the  burden  of  their  continued  support.  If  they  were 
workers  before  their  imprisonment,  they  competed  with  other  free  laborers,  and  to 
make  them  work  while  in  prison  does  not,  therefore,  alter  former  conditions  in  this 
respect ;  whereas  enforcing  idleness  upon  them  would  throw  the  additional  burden  of 
their  support  upon  free  labor. 

(g)  One  presumption  may  be  overthrown  by  another. 
The  presumption  is  in  favor  of  established  institutions  and 
against  a  change,  but  it  is  also  in  favor  of  what  is  right, 
charitable,  and  likely  to  promote  welfare.  As  these  pre- 
sumptions are  sometimes  in  conflict,  one  may  be  used  to 
overthrow  another.' 


3.   The  Order  of  Arguments. 

In  general,  the  best  order  of  arguments  will  be  that  indi- 
cated in  the  preceding  section,  namely:  first,  a  priori; 
secondly,  signs,  testimony,  and  authority ;  and  thirdly,  ex- 
amples. Objections  may  be  answered  at  one  point  in  the 
essay  (either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  close),  or  they  may 
be  answered  separately  at  those  points  in  the  discussion 
where  they  would  naturally  arise.  The  latter  plan  is  usually 
the  better.  It  is  well  to  begin  with  one  of  the  strongest 


92  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

arguments,  or  with  overthrowing  the  strongest  objection, 
the  order,  after  that,  being  in  general  the  order  of  climax, 
indicated  above,  closing  with  the  strongest  argument.  The 
introduction  will  usually  consist  of  nothing  more  than  a 
plain  statement  of  the  proposition,  with  an  explanation  of 
the  writer's  interpretation  of  the  terms  of  the  proposition, 
or  some  other  obviously  preparatory  matter.  If  an  appeal 
to  the  feelings  is  to  be  made  the  place  for  it  is  the  conclu- 
sion, when,  if  at  all,  the  reader  is  presumably  aroused  to 
a  sufficient  degree  to  receive  it. 

Specimen  outlines  in  Argumentation  may  be  found  in  Appendix  A  12.  Subjects  for 
outlining  are  provided  in  Appendix  C  1.  Subjects  for  longer  essays  may  be  selected  from 
Appendix  G. 


PART  II. 

THEORY  OF  THE   PARAGRAPH. 

Obviously  the  first  question  to  be  asked  in  dealing  with 
the  theory  of  the  paragraph  is,  Why  do  we  paragraph  at 
all  ?  Why  should  not  the  essay  be  written  (as  the  beginner 
commonly  does  write  it)  in  an  unbroken  succession  of  sen- 
tences ?  Why  divide  it  into  sentence-groups  ? 

One  answer  to  these  questions  is,  that  a  page  of  printed 
or  written  matter  looks  more  attractive  when  paragraphed 
than  when  not  thus  diversified.  The  indented  lines  serve 
as  landmarks  for  the  reader's  eye,  enabling  him  to  find  his 
place  again  if  he  should  happen  to  turn  aside  for  a  moment. 

This  reason,  as  far  as  it  goes,  is  an  excellent  one  and 
should  never  be  left  out  of  consideration.  Indeed,  it  is  not 
improbable  that  many  writers  have  no  other.  But  whether 
as  a  practical  rule  of  composition  or  as  an  explanation  of 
the  phenomena  of  paragraphing,  it  is  manifestly  inadequate. 
As  the  first,  it  leaves  the  place  and  limits  of  the  paragraph 
to  the  caprice  of  the  writer;  as  the  second,  it  makes  the 
relation  of  the  paragraph  to  the  essay  merely  accidental. 
In  either  case  the  essay  is  treated  as  a  homogeneous  mass 
of  words  which  may  be  divided  as  properly  in  one  place  as 
in  another.  We  need,  therefore,  to  look  a  little  farther  for 
the  answer  to  the  question,  Why  paragraph  at  all  ? 

The  proper  method  of  inquiry,  since  the  paragraph  is 
assumed  to  be  a  constituent  element  of  the  essay,  will  be 
to  determine  first  what  is  the  essential  principle  of  essay 
structure,  then  to  consider  how,  from  this  essential  prin- 

93 


94  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

ciple,  the  paragraph,  or  a  structural  feature  corresponding 
to  it,  may  be  logically  derived. 

The  essay,  with  its  beginning,  its  development,  and  its 
conclusion,  owes  its  existence  to  the  peculiar  way  in  which 
writers  do  their  thinking.  If  the  flow  of  thought  were  a 
uniform,  unruffled  stream,  ever  moving  steadily  in  one  direc- 
tion, its  expression  in  discourse  would  doubtless  partake  of 
this  uninterrupted  character.  Discourse  would  be  a  smooth 
succession  of  verbal  signs,  each  gliding  into  the  next  with- 
out pause  or  jar.  In  such  case  a  writer,  once  started, 
might  not  find  any  point  which,  more  than  another,  marked 
a  resting-place  in  the  flow  of  words.  An  illustration  of  this 
manner  of  expression  is  seen  in  the  case  of  persons  under 
the  influence  of  mesmerism.  A  subject  who  has  been  told 
to  talk,  talks  uninterruptedly  until  he  is  told  to  stop.  Then 
he  breaks  off  abruptly.  The  monotonous  patter  of  words 
shows  slight  tendency  to  fall  into  the  essay  form.  Examples 
of  minds  naturally  thus  constituted  are  common  in  fiction. 
Thus  Justice  Shallow :  — 

Jesu,  Jesu,  dead !  a'  drew  a  good  bow ;  and  dead !  a'  shot  a  fine 
shoot ;  John  o' Gaunt  loved  him  well,  and  betted  much  money  on  his 
head.  Dead  !  a'  would  have  clapped  i'  the  clout  at  twelve  score  ;  and 
carried  you  a  forehand  shaft  at  fourteen  and  fourteen  and  a  half,  that 
it  would  have  done  a  man's  heart  good  to  see.  How  a  score  of  ewes 
now? 

But  the  better  kind  of  thinking  is  not  at  all  of  this  type. 
When  our  thoughts  have  a  character  that  makes  them  worth 
expressing,  when  we  are  thinking  to  some  purpose,  the 
thought-process  consists  of  a  series  of  leaps  and  pauses. 
The  stream  shoots  toward  some  point  of  interest,  eddies 
about  it  a  moment,  then  hurries  on  to  another.  "In  all 
our  voluntary  thinking,"  says  Professor  James  (Psychology, 
I.  259),  "there  is  some  topic  or  subject  about  which  all  the 
members  of  the  thought  revolve.  Half  the  time  this  topic 
is  a  problem,  a  gap  we  cannot  yet  fill  with  a  definite  picture, 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph.  95 

word,  or  phrase,  but  which  influences  us  in  an  intensely 
active  and  determinate  psychic  way.  Whatever  may  be 
the  images  and  phrases  that  pass  before  us,  we  feel  their 
relation  to  this  aching  gap.  To  fill  it  up  is  our  thought's 
destiny."  Toward  this  objective  point  the  thought  presses 
with  an  imperiousness  that  is  no  inadequate  test  of  the  value 
of  the  process.  The  feeble  mind  feels  only  in  a  vague  way 
the  propulsion  toward  the  central  idea;  the  genius  often 
flies  toward  the  goal  as  unerringly  as  the  armature  leaps  to 
the  magnet. 

This  fact,  that  our  best  thinking  tends  to  move  toward 
some  conclusion  felt,  more  or  less  determinately,  to  be 
possible  of  attainment,  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  essay  struct- 
ure. The  writer  may  write  the  essay  as  he  works  his  way 
toward  that  end,  or  he  may  first  reach  the  end  by  a  process 
purely  mental,  and  then  take  up  his  pen  to  make  the  verbal 
record.  In  either  case  in  the  work  of  composition  he 
traverses  the  same  ground  (though  not  always  necessarily 
in  the  same  order)  that  he  traversed  in  his  thought.  The 
essay,  therefore,  is  not  a  fortuitous  concourse  of  ideas.  It 
is  a  careful  record  of  the  mind's  activity  when  exercised  in 
a  single  direction.  This  fact  it  is  which  gives  the  essay 
that  striking  characteristic  known  as  organic  unity.  By 
this  is  meant  that  every  part  of  the  structure  derives  its 
significance  from  its  relation  to  the  whole.  Each  sentence, 
each  word  is  what  it  is  and  is  where  it  is  because  it  has  a 
certain  function  to  perform  in  the  service  of  the  whole 
organism.  It  contributes  its  share  to  the  fulfilling  of  4f  the 
thought's  destiny."  When  the  end  is  reached  it  is  seen  that 
each  preceding  element  in  its  appropriate  place  and  in  its 
due  relation  was  essential  to  the  attainment  of  the  end. 
The  production,  therefore,  taken  as  a  whole,  is  a  symmetri- 
cally developed  organism. 

If  the  essay  has  this  organic  character,  it  follows  that 
the  paragraph,  as  a  constituent  element  of  the  essay,  can  be 


96  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

neither  arbitrary  nor  accidental.  It  must  be  a  part  of  the 
essay  finding  a  reason  for  existence  in  the  peculiar  func- 
tion which  it  performs.  It  must  play  a  definite  part  in 
the  structure  of  the  whole  organism.  Whatever  peculi- 
arities of  function  or  structure  a  paragraph  possesses  must 
be  explainable  by  its  relation  to  the  function  and  struct- 
ure of  the  whole  composition.  Let  us  see  what  this  rela- 
tion is. 

The  essay  is  the  result  of  a  sustained  movement  of  the 
writer's  thought  toward  a  definite  goal,  but  within  this 
large  development  several  intermediate  steps  are  discover- 
able. The  thought,  on  its  way  to  the  main  conclusion, 
passes  through  many  stages  of  transition,  attains  many 
minor  conclusions,  pauses  for  many  retrospective  glances. 

The  portions  of  the  essay  marked  off  by  these  resting- 
places  partake  of  the  organic  character  of  the  essay,  except 
that  each  portion  exists  not  for  itself  alone,  but  for  each 
other  portion  and  for  the  whole.  Further,  each  of  these 
subdivisions  has  an  organic  character,  and  therefore  pos- 
sesses unity,  completeness,  and  sequence.  Like  the  essay, 
it  has  a  theme  of  its  own  — some  partial  aspect  of  the 
essay-theme  —  which  it  treats  as  exhaustively  as  the  main 
theme  is  treated  in  the  essay.  It  is  these  minor  subdivi- 
sions, these  articulations  of  the  thought  found  in  every 
well  constructed  essay,  which  form  the  basis  for  the  para- 
graphic division. 

The  natural  articulations  form  the  basis  of  the  para- 
graphic subdivision,  but  do  not  necessarily  correspond  ex- 
actly to  the  paragraphing.  The  mechanical  paragraphing 
does  not  always  represent  every  joint  in  the  structure  of 
the  essay.  The  joints  are  of  greater  and  lesser  importance, 
and  hence  it  is  frequently  left  to  the  option  of  the  writer 
to  determine  whether  he  shall  mark  the  articulation  (1)  at 
every  joint,  (2)  at  the  larger  joints,  or  (3)  for  the  sake 
of  variety  follow  now  one  plan,  now  the  other.  These  vari- 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph. 


97 


eties  of  construction  may  be  represented  diagrammatically 
thus : — 


a      :      b      :     c 

a      :      b     : 

c     :      d 

a      :      b     : 

c 

_  B 

A,  B,  and  C  here  represent  the  more  important  stadia  of 
the  developing  thought ;  the  small  letters,  the  partial  con- 
clusions. The  vincula  above  show  the  three  methods  of 
paragraphing.  Many  variations  of  the  third  method  might 
of  course  be  adopted,  according  to  the  kind  of  discourse 
and  the  varying  degrees  of  subordination  of  the  minor 
articulations. 

These  three  varieties  of  paragraph-arrangement  are  made 
to  appear  in  the  following  quotation  and  adaptations  of 
an  extract  from  Professor  Whitney's  Essentials  of  English 
Grammar,  pp.  37  4.  Professor  Whitney,  in  the  original, 
makes  a  paragraph  of  each  minor  division  of  the  thought. 
This  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  first  extract.  In  the  sec- 
ond arrangement  the  indentations  are  made  to  occur  so  as 
to  indicate  the  large  divisions  only.  In  the  third,  a  consid- 
erable variety  is  introduced. 


a 

:   b  :      c     : 

d                  e 

a  :       b 

a                    b 

A  B  C 

A  a.  When  we  say  simply  "English,"  we  mean  the  language  of 
our  time,  such  as  we  ourselves  understand  and  use. 

6.  But  there  are  considerable  differences  in  the  language  even  of 
English  speakers  at  the  present  day. 

c.  Thus,  almost  every  region  has  some  peculiarities  in  the  way  in 
which  its  speakers  use  their  English. 


98  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

d.  There  are,  for  example,  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  of  Ire- 
land, noticed  by  us  in  the  Irish  emigrant ;    those  of  the  English  of 
Scotland,  seen  in  the  poetry  of  Burns,  the  stories  of  Scott,  and  other 
such  places  ;  and  those  of  the  negro  English  of  the  Southern  United 
States.    And,  in  general,  an  Englishman  can  tell  an  American,  and 
an  American  can  tell  an  Englishman,  by  the  way  he  talks. 

e.  When  these  peculiarities  amount  to  so  much  that  they  begin  to 
interfere  a  little  with  our  understanding  the  persons  who  have  them, 
we  say  that  such  persons  speak  a  dialect  of  English,  rather  than 
English  itself. 

B  a.  Then  there  is  also  the  difference  between  what  we  call  "  good 
English"  and  "bad  English." 

6.  By  good  English  we  mean  those  words,  and  those  meanings  of 
them,  and  those  ways  of  putting  them  together,  which  are  used  by  the 
best  speakers,  the  people  of  best  education ;  everything  which  such 
people  do  not  use,  or  use  in  another  way,  is  bad  English.  Thus  bad 
English  is  simply  that  which  is  not  approved  and  accepted  by  good 
and  careful  speakers ; 

C  a.  Every  one  who  speaks  any  language  "naturally,"  as  we  call 
it,  has  really  learned  it  from  those  whom  he  has  heard  speak  around 
him  as  he  was  growing  up.  But  he  is  liable  to  learn  it  ill,  forming 
bad  and  incorrect  habits  of  speech  ;  or  he  may  learn  it  from  those  who 
have  themselves  learned  it  ill,  and  may  copy  their  bad  habits.  There 
are,  indeed,  very  few  who  do  not,  while  they  are  learning  to  speak, 
acquire  some  wrong  ways,  which  they  have  to  correct  afterwards. 

b.  It  is  partly  in  order  to  help  in  this  process  of  correcting  bad 
habits,  that  the  good  and  approved  usages  of  a  language  are  collected 

grammar. 


II. 


a    : 

b    : 

c 

d         :      e 

a    :       b 

a          :      b 

A.  When  we  say  simply  "  English,"  we  mean  the  language  of  our 
time,  such  as  we  ourselves  understand  and  use.  But  there  are  con- 
siderable differences  in  the  language  even  of  English  speakers  at  the 
present  day.  Thus,  almost  every  region  has  some  peculiarities  in  the 
way  in  which  its  speakers  use  their  English.  There  are,  for  example, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  English  of  Ireland,  noticed  by  us  in  the  Irish 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph.  99 

emigrant ;  those  of  the  English  of  Scotland,  seen  in  the  poetry  of 
Burns,  the  stories  of  Scott,  and  other  such  places ;  and  those  of  the 
negro  English  of  the  Southern  United  States.  And,  in  general,  an 
Englishman  can  tell  an  American,  and  an  American  can  tell  an 
Englishman,  by  the  way  he  talks.  When  these  peculiarities  amount 
to  so  much  that  they  begin  to  interfere  a  little  with  our  understand- 
ing the  persons  who  have  them,  we  say  that  such  persons  speak  a 
dialect  of  English,  rather  than  English  itself. 

B.  Then  there  is  also  the  difference  between  what  we  call  "good 
English1'  and  "bad  English."     By  good   English   we  mean  those 
words,  and  those  meanings  of  them,  and  those  ways  of  putting  them 
together,  which  are  used  by  the  best  speakers,  the  people  of  best 
education ;  everything  which  such  people  do  not  use,  or  use  in  an- 
other way,  is  bad  English.     Thus  bad  English  is  simply  that  which  is 
not  approved  and  accepted  by  good  and  careful  speakers. 

C.  Every  one  who  speaks  any  language  "naturally,"  as  we  call  it, 
has  really  learned  it  from  those  whom  he  has  heard  speak  around  him 
as  he  was  growing  up.     But  he  is  liable  to  learn  it  ill,  forming  bad 
and  incorrect  habits  of  speech  ;  or  he  may  learn  it  from  those  who 
have  themselves  learned  it  ill,  and  may  copy  their  bad  habits.     There 
are,  indeed,  very  few  who  do  not,  while  they  are  learning  to  speak, 
acquire  some  wrong  ways,  which  they  have  to  correct  afterwards.    It 
is  partly  in  order  to  help  in  this  process  of  correcting  bad  habits,  that 
the  good  and  approved  usages  of  a  language  are  collected  and  set 
forth  in  a  book  which  is  called  a  "  grammar." 


III. 


a 

b    :       c 

d 

e 

a 

b 

a 

b 

A  B  C 

A  a-c.  When  we  say  simply  "  English,"  we  mean  the  language  of 
our  time,  such  as  we  ourselves  understand  and  use.  But  there  are 
considerable  differences  in  the  language  even  of  English  speakers  at 
the  present  day.  Thus,  almost  every  region  has  some  peculiarities  in 
the  way  in  which  its  speakers  use  their  English. 

d-e.  There  are,  for  example,  the  peculiarities  of  the  English  of 
Ireland,  noticed  by  us  in  the  Irish  emigrant ;  those  of  the  English  of 
Scotland,  seen  in  the  poetry  of  Burns,  the  stories  of  Scott,  and  other 
such  places ;  and  those  of  the  negro  English  of  the  Southern  United 


100  Paragmp h  -  Writing. 

States.  And,  in  general,  an  Englishman  can  tell  an  American,  and  an 
American  can  tell  an  Englishman,  by  the  way  he  talks.  When  these 
peculiarities  amount  to  so  much  that  they  begin  to  interfere  a  little 
with  our  understanding  the  persons  who  have  them,  we  say  that  such 
persons  speak  a  dialect  of  English,  rather  than  English  itself. 

B  a-b.  Then  there  is  also  the  difference  between  what  we  call 
"good  English"  and  "bad  English."  By  good  English  we  mean 
those  words,  and  those  meanings  of  them,  and  those  ways  of  putting 
them  together,  which  are  used  by  the  best  speakers,  the  people  of 
best  education ;  everything  which  such  people  do  not  use,  or  use  in 
another  way,  is  bad  English.  Thus  bad  English  is  simply  that  which 
is  not  approved  and  accepted  by  good  and  careful  speakers. 

C  a.  Every  one  who  speaks  any  language  "naturally,"  as  we  call 
it,  has  really  learned  it  from  those  whom  he  has  heard  speak  around 
him  as  he  was  growing  up.  But  he  is  liable  to  learn  it  ill,  forming 
bad  and  incorrect  habits  of  speech ;  or  he  may  learn  it  from  those 
who  have  themselves  learned  it  ill,  and  may  copy  their  bad  habits. 
There  are,  indeed,  very  few  who  do  not,  while  they  are  learning  to  speak, 
acquire  some  wrong  ways,  which  they  have  to  correct  afterwards. 

b.  It  is  partly  in  order  to  help  in  this  process  of  correcting  bad 
habits,  that  the  good  and  approved  usages  of  a  language  are  collected 
and  set  forth  in  a  book  which  is  called  a  "  grammar." 

Each  of  the  arrangements  given  above  is  correct,  and 
each  may  be  called  for  by  the  nature  of  the  work  in  which 
it  occurs,  or  by  the  character  of  the  readers  to  whom  the 
writer  is  addressing  himself.  The  paragraph-arrangement 
is  faulty,  however,  if  a  paragraph  is  made  in  the  middle  of 
a  stadium  or  a  main  articulation  is  brought  into  the  middle 
of  a  paragraph,  thus  :  — 


a  :   b  :   c 

a               b 

:     c 

d             e 

a      :     b  : 

c 

C 


The  writer  "  may,  if  he  likes,"  says  Eenton  (Logic  of 
Style,  p.  138),  "turn  a  waggon-load  of  small  paragraphs  into 
one,  with  a  view  of  keeping  the  resources  of  the  paragraph 
for  the  grouping  of  the  larger  masses  of  his  thought.  But 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph.  101 

in  that  case  he  ought  to  be  the  very  last  person  who  should 
wish  to  distribute  one  section  into  two.  It  is  very  ungen- 
teel  to  straddle  back  against  a  door-post,  one  leg  in  the 
room,  and  the  other  in  the  lobby.  Indefeasibly  his  section 
is  one  and  continuous,  notwithstanding  the  mechanical  divi- 
sion. And  when  a  French  novelist  writes  :  — 

4  Jacques  could  not  collect  his  thoughts. 

« Why  ? 

'He  was  mad,' 

in  three  parallel  lines,  we  pass  it  by  without  remark,  because 
it  is  too  furious  an  exaggeration  to  be  harmful,  or  to  escape 
anybody's  notice.  On  the  other  hand,  when  a  section  opens, 
for  example,  with  a  '  therefore/  we  take  the  first  conception 
to  be  a  resultant  of  the  preceding  section  as  a  whole,  and  not 
of  its  last  proposition." 

The  principle  that  determines  the  relation  of  the  para- 
graph to  the  essay,  determines  also  the  internal  structure 
of  the  paragraph.  The  paragraph  taken  by  itself  is,  in- 
deed, an  essay  in  petto,  the  one  difference  being  that  the 
essay  is  complete  in  itself,  whereas  the  paragraph  (except 
in  the  case  of  the  unrelated  newspaper  paragraph  which  we 
are  here  purposely  leaving  out  of  the  account)  can  be  truly 
understood  only  in  its  relation  to  the  remainder  of  the 
essay.1  It  has,  therefore,  its  own  subject,  its  own  introduc- 
tion, development,  and  conclusion,  with  such  linking  appara- 
tus as  is  necessary  to  show  its  connection  with  what  goes 
before  and  what  comes  after. 

Precisely  what  the  character  of  the  paragraph-structure 
shall  be  in  any  given  instance  is  determined  by  the  part 
such  paragraph  has  to  play  in  the  building-up  of  the  whole 
essay.  Some  paragraphs  will  seem  to  be  little  more  than 

1  When  we  consider,  however,  that  in  order  truly  to  understand  an  essay,  we  must 
know  what  preceded  and  followed  it,  what  part  it  played  in  the  literary  experiences  of 
the  writer,  even  this  distinction  loses  some  of  its  force. 


102  Paragrap  h  -  Writing. 

enumerations  of  particulars,  others  will  apparently  have  the 
office  only  of  making  a  graceful  transition  from  one  aspect 
of  the  theme  to  another.  In  the  typical  paragraph,  how- 
ever, we  may  distinguish  one  main  function,  which  remains 
one,  whatever  forms  it  may  at  various  times  take  on.  It  is 
the  business  of  the  paragraph,  as  a  section  of  the  essay,  to 
develop  a  specific  subject  by  bringing  particular  facts  into 
their  due  relation  to  the  theme  of  the  whole  essay.  This 
may  be  done  in  two  ways  :  either  by  exhibiting  the  particu- 
lars as  illustrations  of  some  aspect  of  the  main  theme,  or 
by  finding  this  aspect  of  the  main  theme  exhibited  in  the 
particulars.  The  first  is  called  the  deductive  method  of 
progression ;  the  second,  t'he  inductive  method.  It  must  be 
repeated,  however,  that  the  two  are  but  faces  of  the  same 
process,  and  come  practically  to  the  same  result.  That  is, 
whichever  method v  is  employed,  the  double  result  is  to  ex- 
hibit the  facts  in  the  light  of  the  theme,  and  the  theme  in 
the  light  of  the  facts.  Examine,  for  instance,  the  following 
paragraph  from  Merivale  (Conversion  of  the  Roman  Empire, 
p.  121):- 

"And  here  we  must  leave  them  for  the  present.  Another  and  a 
wilder  scene  will  shortly  be  presented  to  us  —  a  scene  of  desolation 
and  dismay  and  frenzy  ;  of  prayer  hoarsening  into  imprecation  ;  of  the 
cutting  away  of  boats,  of  breaking  in  twain  of  oars,  of  rushing  madly 
to  the  spirit-room.  They  will  lash  themselves  into  fury ;  they  will 
quarrel,  fight,  and  threaten  to  slay ;  they  will  prepare  to  go  together 
to  the  bottom,  with  fire  in  their  brain  and  defiance  on  their  lips." 

This  is  undoubtedly  the  deductive  progression.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  chapter  is  "  The  Heathen  Awakened  to  a  Sense 
of  his  Spiritual  Danger."  The  special  aspect  of  that  theme 
treated  in  this  paragraph  is  "Results  of  the  Awakening." 
This  subject  is  shown  as  applied  in  certain  particulars. 
That  is,  the  particulars,  the  imprecations,  quarreling,  fight- 
ing, and  the  rest,  derive  their  significance  from  the  dismay 
and  frenzy  announced  at  the  outset.  But  it  is  quite  as  true 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph. 


103 


that  the  dismay  and  frenzy  have  gained  new  significance  by 
the  enumeration  of  the  particulars. 

Again,  examine  the  following  passage  by  Miss  Paget 
(Belcaro,  p.  59)  :  — 

"Most  people  can  recognize  a  horse  or  a  lion,  while  they  cannot 
be  expected  to  recognize  a  person  they  have  never  seen,  especially  a 
purely  imaginary  one  ;  the  case  is  evidently  one  of  degree  ;  if  we  had 
never  seen  a  cow,  and  did  not  know  that  cows  are  milked,  we  should 
no  more  understand  the  meaning  of  a  representation  of  cow- milking 
than  we  should  understand  the  meaning  of  a  picture  of  Achilles  in 
Scyros  if  we  knew  nothing  about  Achilles.  The  comprehension  of 
the  subject  of  a  work  of  art  would  therefore  seem  to  require  certain 
previous  information  ;  the  work  of  art  would  seem  to  be  unable  to 
tell  its  story  itself,  unless  we  have  the  key  to  that  story." 

In  this  case  the  subject  of  the  essay  is  "  The  Bas-relief  of 
Orpheus  and  Eurydice."  The  specific  subject  of  the  pas- 
sage is  "The  Necessity  of  an  Interpreter  for  Works  of 
Art,"  a  conclusion  which  is  drawn  from  the  facts  cited. 
But  here  again  it  is  evident  that  the  conclusion,  once 
reached,  gives  new  significance  to  the  facts.  The  cow- 
milking  and  the  picture  of  Achilles  get  a  new  and  special 
meaning  from  their  bearing  on  the  interpretation  of  art. 

The  two  modes  of  progression  and  their  relation  may  be 
represented  thus :  — 

b  b 


104  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

In  each  figure  the  small  circle  a  represents  the  specific 
theme  of  the  paragraph ;  the  large  circle  bb,  the  particulars 
through  which  it  is  developed.  The  direction  of  the  arrows 
shows  in  the  first  that  the  particulars  are  being  brought  to 
bear  on  the  theme  ;  in  the  second,  that  the  theme  is  expand- 
ing into  the  particulars.  In  each  case  the  content  of  the 
figure  is  the  same. 

It  follows  that  one  method  of  progression  is  as  "right" 
as  the  other.  But  each  has  its  special  uses.  "  Some  writers 
insist/'  says  Lewes  (Principles  of  JSuccess  in  Literature), 
"  and  others  practice  the  precept  without  insistence,  that 
the  proposition  should  be  stated  first,  and  all  its  qualifica- 
tions as  well  as  its  evidences  be  made  to  follow :  others 
maintain  that  the  proposition  should  be  made  to  grow  up 
step  by  step  with  all  its  evidences  and  qualifications  in 
their  due  order,  ancl  the  conclusion  disclose  itself  as  crown- 
ing the  whole.  Are  not  both  methods  right  under  different 
circumstances  ?  If  my  object  is  to  convince  you  of  a  gen- 
eral truth,  or  to  impress  you  with  a  feeling,  which  you  are 
not  already  prepared  to  accept,  it  is  obvious  that  the  most 
effective  method  is  the  inductive,  which  leads  your  mind 
upon  a  culminating  wave  of  evidence  or  emotion  to  the  very 
point  I  aim  at.  But  the  deductive  method  is  best  when  I 
wish  to  direct  the  light  of  familiar  truths  and  roused  emo- 
tions upon  new  particulars,  or  upon  details  in  unsuspected 
relation  to  those  truths ;  and  when  I  wish  the  attention  to 
be  absorbed  by  these  particulars  which  are  of  interest  in 
themselves,  not  upon  the  general  truths  which  are  of  no 
present  interest  except  in  as  far  as  they  light  up  these 
details.  A  growing  thought  requires  the  inductive  exposi- 
tion, an  applied  thought  the  deductive." 

If,  in  accordance  with  these  general  principles,  we  con- 
struct outlines  for  the  two  types  of  paragraph,  we  shall 
find  them  to  take  some  such  form  as  the  following :  — 


Theory  of  the  Paragraph. 


105 


Deductive. 


Inductive. 


1 

0> 

Connection  with  pre- 
ceding paragraph. 

i 
1 

o 

^. 

Statement  of  para- 
graph-subject. 

+J 

1 

1 

^ 

§ 

5 

Application  of  spe- 
cific theme. 

> 

$» 



1 
I 

PH 

Theme  restated  in 
the  light  of  the 
particulars. 

0 
0 

ft 

0) 

Connection  with  pre- 
ceding paragraph. 

£ 
2 

0) 

[Statement  of  para- 
graph-subject.] 

and  retrospecth 

Statement  of  partic- 
ulars. 

a? 

£ 

:  :  :  :  : 

o 

<D 

1 

£ 

Subject  stated  as 
conclusion  from 
particulars. 

As  pointed  out  in  a  preceding  portion  of  this  book,  the 
statement  of  the  subject  may  sometimes  be  taken  out  of  its 
natural  order :  it  may  come  at  the  beginning  of  an  induc- 
tive progression  or  at  the  end  of  a  deductive  progression. 
In  either  case,  an  examination  of  the  essay  as  a  whole 
will  discover  good  reasons  for  the  inversion.  The  unusual 
position  will  be  found  to  be  demanded  by  the  natural 
sequence  of  the  thought. 

The  various  devices  for  securing  continuity  of  structure 
have  already  been  discussed  in  Part  I.  All  that  needs  to 
be  said  here  is  that  the  apparatus  of  connectives,  inversions, 
parallel  constructions,  explicit  references  and  the  rest,  is 
but  the  sign  of  the  paragraph's  organic  unity,  the  natural 
outgrowth  and  expression  of  the  relating  activity  of  the 
mind.  These  features  of  the  paragraph  are  the  sign-posts 
which  the  thought,  hurrying  on  to  its  appointed  end,  leaves 
behind  to  mark  the  way  whence  it  came  and  whither  it  is 
going. 


106  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

It  may  be  well  to  point  out,  for  those  who  care  to  study  the  subject  further,  some 
of  the  more  important  sources  of  information.  By  the  earlier  writers  the  paragraph 
was  consistently  ignored.  Campbell  treats,  in  passing1,  of  the  "manner  of  using-  con- 
nectives in  combining  sentences  "  (Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  III.  5,  §  2).  Not  a  word 
on  the  subject  is  to  be  found  in  the  treatises  of  Kames,  Blair,  "Whately,  Theremin, 
Graham,  Kerl,  Day,  Haven,  Bardeen,  and  many  others  that  might  be  named.  Hart, 
Quackenbos,  and  Boyd  dismiss  it  with  a  few  lines.  According  to  Minto,  Professor  Bain 
was  the  first  to  lay  down  rules  for  the  construction  of  paragraphs.  His  treatment  will 
be  found  in  his  Composition  and  Rhetoric,  Pt.  I.  chap.  5.  Minto's  own  discussion  of 
the  subject  in  the  Introduction  to  his  Manual  of  English  Prose  is  brief  and  frag- 
mentary, but  his  detailed  analysis  of  Macaulay's  paragraph-structure  (pp.  89-9T)  makes 
good  the  omissions.  Later  writers  who  have  given  the  subject  attention  are  A.  S.  Hill 
(Foundations  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  305-325;  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  157-161),  D.  J. 
Hill  (Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  71-77 ;  Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  198-202),  J.  S.  Clark 
(Practical  Rhetoric,  pp.  28-32),  T.  W.  Hunt  (Principles  of  Written  Discourse,  pp. 
82-84),  G.  B.  Carpenter  (Exercises  in  Rhetoric,  chap,  xii.),  Barrett  Wendell  (Eng- 
lish Composition,  pp.  114-149),  J.  G.  E.  McElroy  (Structure  of  English  Prose,  pp. 
196-222).  A  brief  account  of  the  isolated  paragraph  will  be  found  in  De  Mille  (Ele- 
ments of  Rhetoric,  pp.  264,  468-469).  For  an  exhaustive  analysis,  the  best  that  has 
yet  appeared,  see  Genung's  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  193-213. 

An  elaborate  study  of  the  history  of  the  English  paragraph  has  recently  been  pub- 
lished as  a  doctoral  thesis  bv  Mr.  Edwin  H.  Lewis.  By  a  minute  examination  of  the 
paragraph-structure  of  seventy-three  representative  prosaists,  the  author  reaches  a 
number  of  interesting  conclusions,  of  which  the  following  are  the  most  important : 

(I)  The  rise  of  the  paragraph  is  largely  owing  to  its  economy  as  compared  with  the  long 
periodic  sentence.     (2)  From  the  start  there  has  been  a  distinct  unit  of  invention  larger 
than  the  modern  sentence.     Writers  "  have  thought  roughly  in  long  stages  before  they 
have  analyzed  such  stages  into  smaller  steps."    (3)  The  favorite  type  of  paragraph  has 
been  the  loose  type  (subject  stated  first).     (4)  In  the  history  of  English  prose,  no  writer 
before  Tyndale  has  any  sense  of  paragraph-structure.      (5)   There  has  been  no  pro- 
nounced increase  or  decrease  in  the  average  total  number  of  words  per  paragraph. 
(6)  In  a  list  of  52  authors  the  average  word-length  of  the  paragraph  falls  between  100 
and  300  words,  25  showing  an  average  between  200  and  300  words,  and  27  an  average 
between  100  and  200  words.     (7)  The  modern  paragraph,  first  exemplified  in  Temple,  is 
the  product  of  five  influences  :  (a)  the  mediaeval  tradition  that  a  paragraph  distinguishes 
a  stadium  of  thought,  (b)  the  Latin  tradition  that  a  paragraph  is  for  emphasis,  (c)  the 
Anglo-Saxon  structure,  (d)  the  oral  style,  (e)  French  prose.     (8)  There  has  been  during 
the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  a  tendency  to  make  the  topic-sentence  short. 
(9)  The  paragraph  of  the  nineteenth  century  is,  in  general,  better  organized  than  that 
of  the  eighteenth.     (10)  Single-sentence  paragraphs  are  not  uncommon  in  the  best  prose. 

(II)  Coherence  secured  by  connectives  was  in  most  active  force  in  the  early  period.    It 
declined  until  the  opening  of  the  present  century,  rose  with  Coleridge,  then  declined 
again.    To-day  there  are  two  tendencies :  (a)  in  popular  prose,  to  drop  sentence-con- 
nectives ;  (b)  in  classical  prose  to  use  them  freely  but  vitally. 


or 


UNIVERSITY 
CALIFQS- 


PART  III. 
APPENDICES 


APPENDIX  A. 

1. 

Criticise  the  following  paragraphs,  pointing  out  violations 
of  the  laws  of  unity,  selection,  proportion,  and  sequence. 
Eewrite,  varying  the  form  of  expression  without  changing 
the  idea.  (See  Introductory  (c).) 

If  a  boy  who  comes  to  town  can  begin  by  paying  his  way  in  the 
most  economical  manner,  he  will  do  remarkably  well.  The  chances 
are  against  his  doing  as  much  as  that,  so  great  is  the  demand  for 
places.  Some  men  even  pay  to  have  their  sons  taken  into  great  mer- 
cantile establishments,  though  the  general  experience  of  merchants 
is  that  the  boys  who  come  from  poorer  homes  and  have  been  brought 
up  to  hard  work  are  more  likely  to  push  ahead.  Natives  and  for- 
eigners who  have  learned  frugality  and  have  known  hardship  from 
their  boyhood,  are  getting  ahead  of  those  brought  up  more  tenderly. 

1  Yet,  as  I  said  before,  a  country  boy  who  must  earn  his  own  supj  ort 
from  the  very  beginning  should  not  risk  his  fortune  in  a  great  city 
until  he  has  found  an  actual  opening  there.     It  is  better  for  him  to 
compel  fortune  where  he  is  ;  to  improve  the  chance  nearest  to  his 
hand  ; l  this  country  is  increasing  so  rapidly  in  population  and  in 
the  variety  of    its  industries  and  their  demands    that  throughout 
its  extent  new  opportunites  for   a   career   are    constantly    arising. 

2  Probably  the    United   States  will  contain  at   least  200,000,000   of 
people  by  the  time  boys  who  read  this  paper  have  reached  middle 
life,  and  are  in  the  prime  of  their  manly  power.    New  cities  will 
grow  up  by  the  hundred  and  new  outlets  for  energy  and  enterprise 

1  Unity.  2  Sequence. 

107 


108  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

will  rise.1  The  twentieth  century  is  at  hand  and  it  will  bring  abun- 
dance of  work  and  plentiful  opportunities  for  every  boy  of  to-day  who 
lives  to  enjoy  its  light  and  participate  in  its  progress.  The  chances  of 
fortune  in  the  future  will  be  as  great  as  they  have  been  in  the  past, 
and  the  facilities  which  a  young  man  can  obtain  will  be  more  numer- 
ous. 2  With  very  few  exceptions  —  you  could  count  them  on  the 
fingers  of  one  hand  —  the  great  fortunes  of  the  Union  have  been  accu- 
mulated within  the  last  fifty  years.  All  the  greatest  of  them  have 
been  made  within  that  period,  and  they  have  been  made  by  country 
boys.  3  But  there  is  something  more,  better,  and  higher  than  a  for- 
tune to  make.  It  is  character ;  and  there  is  acquirement  more  valu- 
able than  the  acquirement  of  money,  and  it  is  the  knowledge  which 
enables  a  man  to  get  the  most  out  of  life  and  to  make  himself  of  the 
most  use,  whatever  his  circumstances,  whether  he  lives  among  the 
crowd  of  a  great  city  or  in  the  solitude  of  a  country  farm. 

When  in  his  seat  in  the  Senate,  listening  to  proceedings,  his  feet 
were  usually  employed  in  holding  down  the  desk,  and  his  hands, 
whittling  a  pine  stick,  a  supply  of  which  he  engaged  the  sergeant-at- 
arms  to  furnish  him.  4  He  was  a  regular  attendant  at  church,  and 
during  service  he  " improved  the  occasion"  in  whittling  out  little 
articles  to  give  children,  among  whom  he  had  many  friends.  Some 
of  these  pine  souvenirs  of  Sam  Houston  are  to  this  day  treasured  by 
men  and  women  to  whom  he  gave  them  as  children. 

Mr.  Carnegie  gives  it  as  his  opinion  that  out  of  every  $1000  spent 
in  charity,  $950  does  more  harm  than  good,  and  it  has  come  to  be  an 
axiom  of  the  charity  organizations  that  * '  two-thirds  of  the  efforts  of 
the  wise  are  needed  to  correct  the  mischievous  effects  of  the  acts  of 
the  benevolent."  5 These  principles  are  growing  in  society  and  are 
at  the  bottom  of  much  of  the  hostile  criticism  which  is  bestowed  on 
General  Booth's  scheme  for  lighting  "Darkest  England."  The  large 
amount  of  money  he  demands  and  the  magnitude  of  the  organization 
he  contemplates,  lead  many  to  overlook  the  fact  that  the  real  basis  of 
his  scheme  is  work  and  to  compel  to  work  all  whom  he  aids.  The 
work  test,  the  mendicant  farms,  and  the  colonies,  all  mean  that  those 
helped  are  to  help  themselves. 

We  have  never  changed  our  language,  but  our  language  itself  has 
changed  greatly.  This  is  a  most  important  distinction.  Some  nations 
have  really  changed  their  language.  The  people  of  Gaul  changed  their 

1  Unity.  2  Sequence. 

8  Unity.  Kewrite  in  two  distinct  paragraphs. 
4  Sequence.  Subordinate  idea  made  principal. 
s  What  principles  ?  Improve  the  reference. 


Appendix  A  1.  109 

language  when  they  left  off  speaking  their  natural  tongues,  Celtic  or 
Iberian,  and  took  to  speaking  Latin  instead.  Since  then  they  have 
never  changed  their  tongue ;  but  their  tongue  itself  has  greatly 
changed.  That  is,  there  was  no  time  when  they  left  off  speaking 
Latin  and  took  to  speaking  some  other  tongue.  But  the  Latin  which 
they  spoke  gradually  changed  in  so  many  ways  that  it  practically 
became  another  tongue  ;  it  ceased  to  be  Latin  and  became  French  and 
Proven9al.  So  the  people  of  Cornwall  changed  their  language  when 
they  left  off  speaking  Welsh,  and  took  to  speaking  English  instead. 
The  Normans,  too,  changed  their  language  when  they  left  off  speaking 
Danish  and  took  to  speaking  French  instead.  And  it  might  not  have 
seemed  very  wonderful  if  we  too  had  changed  our  language  in  the  like 
sort,  if  we  had  left  off  speaking  English  and  had  taken  to  speaking 
French.  For  the  French  tongue  was  brought  into  England,  as  the 
Latin  tongue  was  brought  into  Gaul,  as  the  tongue  of  a  conquering 
people.  But  the  different  circumstances  of  the  two  conquests  hindered 
the  results  from  being  the  same  in  the  two  cases.  Gaul  was  a  province 
of  Rome,  and  was  gradually  absorbed  into  the  life  of  Rome.  England 
never  became  a  province  of  Normandy;  a  Norman  prince  became 
King  of  the  English,  and  brought  many  Norman  followers  with  him : 
and  that  was  all.  French  was  for  a  while  spoken  in  England  along- 
side of  English.  But  the  English  people  never  left  off  speaking  Eng- 
lish, and  took  to  speaking  French.1  It  was  the  English  language  itself 
that  was  greatly  changed  through  the  presence  of  many  French- 
speaking  people  in  the  land.2 

There  is  some  impatience  with  the  epoch  of  Queen  Anne.  We  do 
not  mean  the  Augustan  age,  as  it  used  to  be  called  —  in  which,  how- 
ever, it  would  not  be  easy  to  point  out  the  Virgil  or  the  Horace  —  but 
the  era  of  the  Queen  Anne  house,  the  epoch  of  decorative  art  in  build- 
ing and  in  furnishing.  3  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  epoch  of  Queen 
Anne  is  a  delightful  insurrection  against  the  monotonous  era  of  rec- 
tangular building  and  of  the  divorce  of  beauty  and  use.  4  The  distinc- 
tion of  the  present  or  recent  dispensation  is  that  the  two  are  blended, 
that  neither  the  house  nor  anything  in  it  need  be  clumsy  or  ugly. 
There  is  no  longer  an  excuse  for  an  unsightly  table  or  chair  or  utensil 
or  the  least  object  of  household  convenience.  There  need  be  no  more 

1  Any  needless  repetitions  ? 

2  Condense  the  paragraph. 

3  Is  "  but,  on  the  other  hand  "  the  proper  connecting-phrase  to  use  here  ?    Point 
out  the  two  ideas  in  adversative  relation. 

4  Is  the  reference  clear? 


110  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

waste  spaces  in  the  house.  The  old  entry,  which  had  degenerated 
from  a  hall  into  a  mere  lobby  or  vacant  passage,  is  now  taken  into  the 
general  "treatment"  of  the  interior,  and  becomes  a  delightful  part  of 
it,  as  pleasant  and  home-like  as  any  other.  The  staircase  is  no  longer 
a  railed  ladder,  but  has  risen  into  a  chief  ornament  of  the  house,  as 
the  noble  staircases  in  the  new  Capitol  of  New  York  are  the  most 
imposing  of  its  details  and  decorations. 

A  man  who  is  in  the  Wisconsin  penitentiary  for  life  has  appealed 
to  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  suggesting  that  as  it  is  difficult  to  recruit 
men  for  the  Navy,  that  the  department  might  find  a  large  number  of 
men  in  the  penitentiaries  who  would  be  willing  to  serve  in  the  Navy 
rather  than  in  prison.  l  This  prisoner  had  reasons  aside  from  his 
desire  for  release,  for  writing  his  letter  ;  during  the  Civil  War  prison- 
ers were  taken  from  penitentiaries,  and  enlisted  in  both  armies,  North 
and  South,  and  many  of  them  made  good  soldiers.  Of  course  it  would 
seem  to  degrade  the  naval  service  to  adopt  such  a  policy,  but  why 
should  our  thought  run  in  that  direction  ?  We  educate  convicts  to  be 
shoemakers,  and  to  o"ther  trades,  in  prison ;  why  might  we  not  set 
apart  certain  war-ships  to  be  manned  by  United  States  prisoners  ? 
They  would  be  quite  as  safe  in  a  war-ship  at  sea,  their  confinement 
would  be  as  close,  their  work  as  hard,  and  the  punishment  as  severe 
as  when  confined  in  any  stone  building  that  is  protected  with  iron 
bars  and  doors. 

2. 

Narrow  each,  of  the  following  general  subjects  to  an 
available  working  theme,  and  then  give  to  each  an  appro- 
priate title  (see  p.  17)  :  — 

1.  Algebra.  11.  Prison  Eeform. 

2.  Literature.  12.  Commerce. 

3.  Law.  13.  The  Arts. 

4.  Travel.  14.  Longfellow. 

5.  High  Schools.  15.  Talking  Machines. 

6.  Athletics.  16.  Public  Libraries. 

7.  Science.  17.  City  Governments. 

8.  Manual  Training.  18.  English. 

9.  Newspapers.  19.  Letter- Writing. 
10.  The  Jury  System.  20.  Protective  Tariff. 

1  Unity.     Is  this  sentence  needed  ? 


Appendix  A  3.  Ill 

Find  the  working  theme  in  each  of  the  first  ten  para- 
graphs in  Appendix  B,  and  give  to  each  an  appropriate 
title. 

3. 

Develop  the  following  topic-sentences  by  repetition  of 
the  idea  in  other  words  (see  p.  25)  :  — 

[NOTE. — Mere  substitution  of  synonyms  is  not  sufficient.  The  central  thought  of 
each  sentence  must  be  varied  in  form  and  must  grow  by  addition  and  emphasis  ;  it  must 
never  stand  still,  or  '  mark  time ' ;  it  must  move  ahead  while  repeating.  It  is  useless 
to  repeat  sentence  1  thus :  "No  excellence  will  assist  the  pupil  so  much  as  devotion  to 
his  lessons."  But  if  we  say,  "Hard  study  pays,"  we  have  a  good  repetition,  for  we 
have  not  only  repeated  the  thought,  but  varied  its  form,  and  added  to  its  force  and  con- 
creteness,  making  it  mean  more.] 

1.  No  virtue  will  help  the  student  so  much  as  close  ap- 
plication to  his  books. 

2.  There  are  few  that  ever  forget  their  school-days. 

3.  At  this  electiorMhey  were  overwhelmingly  defeated. 

4.  Study  and  discipline  will  accomplish  much. 

5.  Not  all  poets  have  written  poems. 

6.  The  common  notion  of  success  is  fallacious. 

7.  In  this  crisis  he  did  not  hesitate. 

8.  A  bad  beginning  does  not  always  imply  a  bad  ending. 

9.  Those  who  work  should  be  paid. 

10.  There  is  nothing  we  should   encourage   more   than 
cheerfulness. 

11.  There  is  a  kind  of  criticism  which  is  in  itself  crea- 
tive. 

12.  A  good  partisan  is  not  always  a  good  citizen. 

13.  A  public  office  is  a  public  trust. 

14.  The  study  of  Latin  may  be  for  one  student  as  practi- 
cal as  is  the  study  of  engineering  for  another. 

15.  The  Prodigal  Son  did  well  to  repent  and  return  to 
his  home,  but  he  would  have  done  better  not  to  have  left 
his  home  at  all. 


112  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

4. 

Develop  the  following  topic-sentences  by  defining,  limit- 
ing, restricting,  or  enlarging  the  terms  of  the  topic-sen- 
tences (see  p.  26):  — 

1.  No  man  ever  tells  the  whole  truth. 

2.  We  must  educate  the  hand  as  well  as  the  brain. 

3.  When  he  says  that  the  schools  are  anti-Christian  he 
says  too  much. 

4.  '  All  men  are  created  equal ? ;  but  equality  here  has  a 
peculiar  meaning. 

5.  When  one  speaks  of  a  natural  manner  of  expression 
he  means . 

6.  I  have  said  that  Lincoln  was  trusted  by  all  the  friends 
of  the  Union ;  but  the  word  ( trusted'  is  not  strong  enough ; 
he  was . 

7.  We  speak  of  the  '  right'  to  vote;  but  is  voting  prop- 
erly regarded  as  a  right  ? 

8.  In  this  country  there  is  no  longer   any  North  or 
South ;  the  terms  are  obsolete ;  there  is  only . 

9.  What  do  we  mean  when  we  say  that  one  man  is  lib- 
eral and  another  man  is  conservative  ?     What  can  we  mean 
but  that ? 

10.  A  true  man  of  the  world  is  something  more  than  a 
frequenter  of  the  clubs ;  he  is . 

11.  To  say  that  honesty  is  the  best  policy  is  to  put 
moral  conduct  on  a  very  low  plane. 

12.  Free  trade  is  not  the  sole  alternative  to  protection. 

13.  The  problem  of  aerial  navigation  will  still  be  far 
from  solution  when  men  have  learned  to  fly  in  pleasant 
weather. 

5. 

Develop  the  following  topic-sentences  by  presenting  the 
negative,  contrary,  or  contrasting  ideas  which  suggest 
themselves  in  connection  with  each  (see  p.  27):  — 


Appendix  A  6.  113 

1.  The  dangers  of  work  are   not  the  greatest  in  the 
world. 

2.  Though  Longfellow's  poetry  falls  short  of  the  highest, 
yet . 

3.  Poverty  cannot  be  abolished  entirely,  but . 

4.  It  may  be  that  strong  opposition  will  delay  this  re- 
form ;  still . 

5.  In  most  cases  students  choose  their  studies  wisely. 

6.  When  rhetoric  is  taught  by  practice  it  is  one  of  the 
most  useful  studies ;  when,  however, . 

7.  I  concede  that  there  are  cases  in  which  one  may 
safely  indulge  in  moderate  drinking. 

8.  When  he  was  angry  he  was  unendurable. 

9.  When  young  men  make  mistakes  a  remedy  may  be 
found. 

10.  It  is  true  that  the  use  of  chloroform  is  sometimes 
attended  with  danger  to  the  patient's  life. 

11.  The  good,  it  is  said,  die  young. 

12.  Stage-coaches  were  fast  enough  for  our  grandfathers. 

13.  Natural  gas  is  a  great  convenience  as  long  as  it  lasts. 

14.  At  the  first   sight  of  Niagara  Falls,  the  visitor   is 
pretty  sure  to  feel  some  disappointment. 

15.  Theoretically,  a  writer  who  has  not  lived  among  the 
lower  classes  should  be  unable  to  represent  them  truthfully 
in  fiction. 

16.  If  young  men  were  willing  to  forego  all  the  luxuries 
of  life,  they  might  easily  save  up  a  competence  for  old  age. 

6. 

Develop  the  following  topic-sentences  by  concrete  illus- 
trations, and  by  explanation  where  explanation  seems  to  be 
needed  (see  p.  28):  — 

1.  Country  life  abounds  in  healthful  pleasures. 

2.  Eeason  unaided  will  not  always  lead  a  man  to  correct 
his  errors. 


114  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

3.  There  was  much  that  is  admirable  in  the  old  Boman 
character. 

4.  A  republic  is  not  the  best  form  of  government  for 
every  nation. 

5.  One's  opinions  are  not  always  a  sure  indication  of 
one's  probable  conduct  in  a  given  case. 

6.  Mere  wishing  is  not  desire. 

7.  Unless  a  duty  is  performed  in  the  right  spirit,  it*  is 
not  done  morally. 

8.  The  greatest  names  in  literature  are  those  of  men 
who  were  not  rich. 

9.  We  can  imagine  cases  in  which  the  best  statesman 
might  fail  to  see  what  law  was  needed. 

10.  It  is  a  mooted  question  whether  a  lawyer  is  justified 
in  undertaking  the  defence  of  a  man  whom  he  knows  to  be 
guilty. 

11.  It  is  within  the  reach  of  the  humblest  American  citi- 
zen to  become  President  of  the  United  States. 

12.  We  need  not  go  far  from  our  own  homes  to  find 
examples  of  courage  and  fortitude. 

13.  Kailroads  and  telegraphs  make  the  world  smaller. 

14.  It  is  the  minor  characters  in  Dickens's  novels  which 
often  prove  the  most  entertaining. 

15.  An  examination  is  often  a  poor  test  of  a  student's 
acquirements. 

16.  In  times  of  peril  the  strong  men  come  to  the  front. 

7. 

Develop  the  following  topic-sentences  by  stating-  the  par- 
ticulars and  details  which  naturally  seem  to  be  called  for 
(see  p.  30)  :  - 

1.  The   experiences  of  Washington's   army  at  Valley 
Forge  were  terrible. 

2.  McClellan  seemed  to  have  all  the  qualities  of  a  great 
military  leader. 


Appendix  A  8.  115 

3.  The  feudal  system  had  many  advantages. 

4.  The  United  States  would  gain  by  annexing  Canada. 

5.  Education  should  mean  more  than  training  the  mind. 

6.  The  list  of  American  writers  includes  the  names  of 
many  humorists. 

7.  The  American  citizen  has  other  political  duties  be- 
sides voting. 

8.  History  is  full  of  examples  of  heroism. 

9.  Elizabeth's,  reign  was  most  eventful. 

10.  There  was  disaffection  in  the  South  for  years  before 
the  war. 

11.  A  young  man  may  enter  public  life  by  any  one  of 
several  doors. 

12.  There  are  many  things  to  be  said  in  favor  of  a  longer 
presidential  term. 

13.  American  laborers  have  had  what  they  think  to  be 
good  reasons  for  forming  unions  and  co-operative  societies. 

14.  The  causes  which  produced  the  ( Black  Friday '  panic 
are  now  well  known. 

15.  Nothing  is  more  important  than  caring  for  the  health. 

16.  A  book,  to  be  worth  reading,  should  have  the  follow- 
ing characteristics. 

17.  There  is  much  to  observe  even  in  the  most  common- 
place surroundings. 

18.  The  shape  of  the  elm-tree  is  noticeably  different  from 
that  of  the  maple. 

8. 

Supply    proofs    of    the   following    topic-sentences    (see 
p.  31):- 

1.  The  best  educated  nations  are  the  most  prosperous. 

2.  Essay  writing  is  usually  distasteful  to  students. 

3.  It  is  not  surprising  that  Jefferson  and  Hamilton  were 
enemies. 

4.  Labor  is  in  a  state  of  unrest. 


116  Paragrap  h  -  Writing. 

5.  A  liberal  education  should  precede  the  professional. 

6.  The  labor  day  should  be  restricted  to  eight  hours. 

7.  The  writer  has  greater  influence  than  the  lecturer. 

8.  Caesar's  reign  was  a  benefit  to  Rome. 

9.  The  Mexican  war  was  unjustifiable. 

10.  The   government   should    establish    postal    savings 
banks. 

11.  Municipal  elections  ought  to  be  non-partisan. 

12.  The  national  capital  ought  to  be  removed  to  a  place 
nearer  the  center  of  the  country. 

13.  The  predictions  of  the  weather  bureau  are  coming  to 
be  more  trustworthy. 

14.  The  number  of  those  slain  in  our  Civil  War  is  much 
smaller  than  is  generally  supposed. 

15.  If  Cicero  were  alive  to-day,  his  speeches  would  be 
listened  to  with  indifference. 

16.  Electricity  as  a  means  of  illumination  will  ultimately 
supersede  gas. 

17.  Manufacture  has  developed  more  in  the  nineteenth 
century  than  in  the  thousand  years  preceding  that  century. 

18.  Improvement  of  weapons  of  precision  tends  to  abol- 
ish war. 

19.  Travel  in  the  United  States  may  be  made  as  improv- 
ing as  travel  in  Europe. 

20.  The  course  of  history  has  been  shaped,  to  some  extent, 
by  superstitions. 

9. 

Apply  and  enforce  the  following  topic-sentences  (see  p. 
32):  — 

1.  A  good  habit,  persisted  in,  becomes  continually  easier 
of  performance. 

2.  A  nation,  like  a  person,  is  bound  by  the  demands  of 
justice. 

3.  If  education  is  to  be  of  value,  it  must  be  systematic. 


v  Appendix  A  10.  117 

4.  One's  better  nature  cannot  be  neglected  without  loss. 

5.  The  health  of  a  city  depends  largely  upon  cleanli- 
ness. 

6.  The  exercise  of  suffrage  is  a  duty. 

7.  Monopolies  are  seldom  beneficial  to  the  people. 

8.  Education  will  solve  the  race  question  in  the  South. 

9.  The  country  owes  a  debt  to  its  literary  men. 

10.  The  Bible  is  one  of  the  monuments  of  literature. 

11.  No  pursuit  is   ignoble   if  it   is   conscientiously  fol- 
lowed. 

/12.   A   taste    for    books    is    a    safeguard    against    evil 
thoughts. 

13.  A  good  memory  is  a  priceless  possession. 

14.  When  good  men  enter  politics  corruption  will  go  out 
of  fashion. 

15.  Conversation  is  the  greatest  of  the  fine  arts. 

16.  Do  the  duty  that  lies  nearest  you. 

17.  It  is  false  charity  to  give  to  every  stranger  that  asks 
for  aid. 

18.  The  shoemaker  should  stick  to  his  last. 

19.  Do  not  try  to  tell  all  you  know. 

20.  Good  workmanship  always  tells  in  the  end. 

21.  Do  not  be  ashamed  of  poor  relations. 

10. 

Develop  each  of  the  following  topic-sentences,  using 
those  methods  which  seem  most  suitable  in  each  particular 
case.  Memorize  the  table  in  Appendix  A  11. 

1.  There  are  some  evils  unavoidably  connected   with 
athletic  sports. 

2.  Arbitration  will  ultimately  do  away  with  war. 

3.  The  newsboy  has  his  troubles. 

4.  A  standing  army  is  unnecessary  in  this  country. 

5.  Washington  and  Lincoln  present  several  contrasts  in 
character. 


118  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

6.  Newspaper  English  has  a  few  well-defined  characteris- 
tics. 

7.  Unanimity  should  not  be  required  of  a  jury. 

8.  There  should  always  be  a  motive  in  reading. 

9.  The  American  Indian,  as  represented  in  the  old  school 
readers,  was  a  heroic  figure. 

10.  Novel-reading  presents  some  dangers. 

11.  All  have  their  peculiarities. 

12.  The  lazy  man  has  some  advantages  over  the  active 
man,  after  all. 

13.  Lincoln's  administration  was  most  eventful. 

14.  Kef orms  are  being  advocated  without  number. 

15.  Book-buying  has  become  a  fine  art. 

16.  The  world  must  present  a  queer  spectacle  to  a  man 
seven  feet  tall. 

17.  Whittier's  "poems  show  that  he  was  a  friend  of  the 
slave. 

18.  Selfishness  often  defeats  its  own  ends. 

19.  Books   written  by  very   good   men   are.  sometimes 
extremely  tedious. 

20.  Races  between  ocean   steamers   are   attended  with 
great  danger. 

21.  There  are  persons  to  whom  the  commission  of  a  sole- 
cism is  nothing  short  of  a  crime. 

22.  At  the  opening  of  the  present  century  the  map  of 
Europe   was   in   many   respects  different   from  that  with 
which  our  school-children  are  familiar. 


11. 

The  following  scheme  of  typical  paragraph  structure  is, 
with  slight  changes,  taken  from  Genung's  Practical  Rheto- 
ric, p.  199.  It  will  be  found  helpful  to  the  student  in 
suggesting  means  of  developing  the  paragraph  in  an  orderly 
way,  and  should  be  memorized.  Of  course,  no  one  para- 


Appendix  A  12.  119 

graph  can  employ  more  than  three  or  four  of  the  means 
suggested.  The  character  of  the  thought  to  be  expressed 
will  dictate  the  natural  method  to  be  selected  for  its  devel- 
opment. If  kept  in  mind  as  a  whole,  the  following  table 
will  show  the  student  what  his  resources  are,  in  any  given 
case.  The  '  obverse '  mentioned  below  is  one  of  the  many 
forms  which  a  contrast  may  assume. 

1.  The  subject  proposed  (stated  in  a  topic-sentence  usu- 

ally). 

2.  Whatever  is  needed  to  explain  the  subject, 
(a)  Kepetition. 

(6)   Obverse  (presenting  the  contrary), 
(c)    Definition    (limitation,    restriction,    or    enlarge- 
ment) . 

3.  Whatever  is  needed  to  establish  the  subject. 

(a)  Exemplification  or  detail. 

(b)  Illustration. 

(c)  Proof. 

4.  Whatever  is  needed  to  apply  the  subject. 

(a)  Result  or  consequence. 

(b)  Enforcement. 

(c)  Summary  or  recapitulation. 

12. 

The  following  outlines  (or  similar  ones,  provided  by  the 
instructor,  and  better  adapted  to  the  grade  and  attainments 
of  the  class)  may  be  employed  in  a  profitable  exercise  for 
teaching  the  need  of  paragraphic  unity.  Let  one  of  the 
numbered  topics  of  an  outline  be  assigned  to  each  student. 
He  is  to  write  a  paragraph  on  his  topic  for  the  next  recita- 
tion, keeping  in  mind  what  ought  to  be  said  on  the  topics 
preceding  and  following  his  own,  and  determining  what 
properly  belongs  to  the  topic  assigned  to  himself.  At  the 
appointed  time,  the  paragraphs  are  read  in  their  numbered 


120  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

order  in  class,  together  forming  an  essay  on  the  subject. 
Any  intermingling  of  topics  or  violation  of  unity  is  criti- 
cised, transitions  between  sentences  and  paragraphs  are 
supplied,  various  methods  of  treating  the  same  topics  are 
compared,  and  the  need  that  each  student  '  stick  to  his 
text7  is  duly  enforced.  Such  points  as  choice  of  words, 
variety  of  expression,  and  construction  of  sentences  will 
also  call  for  attention.  It  has  been  found  profitable  to 
continue  this  work  for  several  recitations  and  at  intervals 
throughout  the  course.  Some  of  these  may  be  studied  as 
specimens.  Account  for  the  arrangement  of  topics.  Make 
other  outlines  on  the  same  subjects. 


USES  OF  NOVEL-BEADING. 

V 

1.  Introductory.      Increase   of  novel-reading  to  be   ex- 
plained by  its  uses. 

2.  Affords  relaxation  and  entertainment. 

3.  A  valuable  aid  to  the  study  of  history  and  geography. 

4.  Information  about  various  classes  of  society. 

5.  Eeforms  brought  about  in  law,  education,  etc.    Dickens. 

6.  Insight  into  human   character,  making  reader  more 
charitable  in  his  judgments  of  others. 

7.  Conclusion.     A  summary. 

PHYSICAL  CULTURE. 
Theme :    Importance  of  Physical  Culture. 

1.  Promotes  health  and  prevents  disease. 

2.  Increases  strength  and  endurance. 

3.  Trains  the  muscles  to  act  with  accuracy,  making  more 
efficient  workers. 

4.  Influence  on  the  mind., 

5.  Moral  influence. 


Appendix  A  12.  121 

4 

COMPULSORY  EDUCATION  LAWS. 
Theme:  Such  laws  are  necessary. 

1.  Introductory.     Eight  of  the  State  to  do  all  that  is 
necessary  for  its  own  safety.     Eesults  of  a  contrary  doc- 
trine. 

2.  An  educated  citizenship  necessary.     Eeasons. 

3.  An  educated  citizenship  cannot  be  secured  if  educa- 
tion is  left  to  parental  caprice ;  for  some  parents  are  neg- 
lectful, others  avaricious,  others  criminal. 

4.  Nor  can  it  be  secured  by  merely  providing  free  public 
schools,  for  not  all  will  attend  voluntarily. 

5.  Nor  can  it  be  secured  through  the  private  schools,  for 
not  all  of  these  teach  what  children  most  need  to  prepare 
them  for  the  duties  of  citizenship. 

6.  Conclusion.     Attendance  upon  public  schools  or  upon 
private  schools  approved  by  state   authorities   should  be 
compulsory. 

THE  PRESIDENTIAL  TERM. 

Theme:    It  should   be   lengthened  to   seven  years,  and  the 
President  made  ineligible  to  re-election. 

1.  Various  opinions  among  the  framers  of  the  Constitu- 
tion.    The  four  years'  term  is  the  result  of  a  compromise. 

2.  Desire  for  re-election  and  its  effect  upon  the  use  of 
patronage. 

3.  Its  effect  upon  the  President's  exercise  of  the  veto 
power  in  respect  to  bad  partisan  measures,  and  river  and 
harbor  bills. 

4.  Its  effect  upon   the   President's   treatment   of   Civil 
Service  Eeform. 

5.  Ineligibility  to  re-election  would  remedy  these  evils. 


122  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

6.  A  seven  years'  term  would  be  long  enough  to  enable 
the  President  to  develop  a  broad  policy  on  great  questions. 

7.  Would  avoid  the  evil  effects  on  business  and  invest- 
ments every  four  years. 

8.  Would  give  greater  stability  to  the  public  service  at 
home  and  at  foreign  courts. 

9.  Concluding  summary. 

THE  AMERICAN  SUNDAY. 
What  shall  be  its  character? 

1.  Growing  disregard  of  Sunday  by  large  corporations. 

2.  Various  views  of  individuals   as  to  proper  Sunday 
observance. 

3.  The  true  basis  is  the  need  of  rest  and  spiritual  culture. 

4.  Means   of   securing   rest :    cessation   of   unnecessary 
labor,  reading,  walking   or   riding,  a  visit   to   the   public 
library,  art  gallery. 

5.  Spiritual  culture :  the  church,  the  lecture,  the  concert. 

6.  The  ideal  Sunday ;  its  distinguishing  features. 

NEWSPAPER  BEADING. 

1.  Newspapers  indispensable,  but  evil  tendencies  not  to 
be  overlooked. 

2.  Often  take  time  which  might  be  spent  to  better  advan- 
tage. 

3.  Slang,  careless  use  of  language,  etc.     Effect  on  reader. 

4.  Readers  may  acquire  a  taste  for  the  sensational  in  life. 

5.  An  inferior  quality  of  fiction  published. 

6.  Too  much  prominence  given  to  the  dark  side  of  life. 
Effect. 

7.  Newspapers  should  be  read  judiciously  and  with  selec- 
tion. 


Appendix  A  12.  123 

AN  INTERNATIONAL  COPYRIGHT  LAW  SHOULD  BE  SECURED. 

(Argument.) 

1.  The  law  of  property-protection  a  fundamental  law  of 

society. 

(a)  A  man  has  the  right  to  protect  his  own  property. 
(6)   He  is  entitled  to  such  protection  from  the  gov- 
ernment. 

2.  The  products  of  one's  thought  are  property. 

(a)  Because  they  are  the  result  of  labor,  and  therefore 
valuable. 

(5)  This  is  recognized  by  every  government  in  respect 

to  its  own  citizens. 

3.  Such  property  should  receive  international  protection, 
(a)   Since,  without  it,  an  author's  product  does  not 

receive  from  foreign  countries  the  property- 
protection  which  they  accord  to  other  species 
of  property.  The  author  is  singled  out  to  be 
cheated  of  his  rights.  Examples :  Uncle  Tom's 
Cabin,  Bancroft's  United  States,  and  others. 

(6)  In  the  absence  of  such  protection  an  author  does 

not  receive  equal  treatment  with  other  laborers. 

4.  Special  application  to  American  authors. 

THE  MODERN  CERBERUS  (POVERTY,  IGNORANCE,  SIN). 

(Outline  of  a  lecture  by  Dr.  Washington  Gladden.) 
[An  example  in  Parallel  Construction.] 

1.  Causes  of  Poverty. 

(a)  Physical  disability. 

(&)    Social  arrangements  (Land  Question). 

(c)    Lack  of  efficient  motive  to  gain  a  competence. 

2.  Causes  of  Ignorance, 
(a)  Mental  disability. 


124  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

(b)  Faulty  educational  arrangements. 

(1)  The  Negro  problem. 

(2)  The  Indian  question. 

(3)  Education  in  large  cities. 

(c)  Lack  of  efficient  motive  to  education. 

3.  Causes  of  Sin. 

(a)  Moral  disability. 

(b)  Bad  social  arrangements. 

(c)  Lack  of  efficient  motive. 

4.  How  slay  Cerberus. 

(a)  Patience  and  charity  for  the  disabled. 

(6)   Improved  social  and  educational  arrangements  by 

legislation, 
(c)    Inspire  an  efficient  motive  by  example. 

V 

THE     NlCARAUGUA     EOUTE     IS      THE     BEST     FOR     A     SHIP- 
CANAL  FROM  THE  ATLANTIC  TO  THE  PACIFIC. 

(Argument.) 

Introduction :  The  routes  proposed. 
Discussion  : 

1.  Nicaraugua  the  easiest  built. 

(a)  No  tunneling. 

(b)  No  mountain  cutting. 

(c)  Most  favored  by  nature. 

2.  No  trouble  from  floods. 

(a)  The  Chagres  Eiver  at  Panama. 

(b)  The  San  Juan  at  Nicaraugua. 
(1)  No  tributaries. 

3.  The  climate  more  favorable 

(a)  Than  at  Panama. 

(b)  Than  on  other  routes. 

4.  It  is  the  shortest  and  cheapest  route. 

Conclusion :  Summary. 


TY 
Appendix  A  12.  ""^ 

ANNEXATION  OF  CANADA.  * 

(Exposition.) 

A.  Probability  of  ultimate  separation  of  Canada  from 

England. 

1.  Because  of  divergence  of  commercial  interest. 

2.  Distance  and  difference  in  character  of  the  people. 

3.  Influence  of  the  United  States. 

B.  Shall  annexation  to  the  United  States  follow  ? 

1.  Considerations  favorable  to  annexation. 

(a)  Extradition  laws  rendered  unnecessary. 

(b)  The  United  States  would  acquire  a  vast  and 

valuable  territory. 

(c)  Commercial  and  trade  restrictions  removed. 

(d)  4  Manifest  destiny.'     The  two  countries  natu- 

rally one. 

2.  Considerations  opposed  to  annexation. 

(a)  The  financial  condition  of  both  countries. 

(1)  Canada's  debt  increasing. 

(2)  Debt  of  the  United  States  decreasing. 
(6)   Undesirable  classes  of  Canada's  population. 

(c)  Vast  increase  of  government  machinery  nec- 

essary. 

(d)  All  the   advantages   of    annexation   may  be 

acquired  by  better  trade-  and  extradition- 
treaties,  with  no  disadvantages. 

3.  Estimate  of  weight  of  arguments  and  inference 

against  annexation. 

DANGERS  OF  UNRESTRICTED  IMMIGRATION. 

(Division.) 
Introduction : 

1.   Extent  of  immigration  before  the  Civil  War ;  charac- 
ter of  immigrants. 


126  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

2.   Numbers  and  general  character  of  present  immigrants. 
Discussion : 

1.  Political  dangers. 

(a)  Influence   when   consolidated   against    American 

interests. 
(6)   Hostility  of  some  to  American  political  ideas. 

(c)  Dangers   arising    from    ignorance ;    from    dema- 

gogues. 

(d)  Evil  results  of  party  efforts  to  secure  solid  foreign 

vote. 

2.  Social  dangers. 

(a)  Tendency  to  clannishness  in  mode  of  life. 
(&)   The  educational  question. 
(c)    The  religious  question. 

Conclusion : 

1.  Need  of  new  naturalization  laws. 

2.  Need  of  a  restricted  franchise. 

3.  Need  of  more  stringent  immigration  laws. 


INFLUENCE  OF  .AMERICA  ON  EUROPE. 

(Exposition.) 

1.  Our  democratic  institutions  have  diffused  the  senti- 

ment of  liberty. 

2.  America  an  example  of  creative  energy  in  material 

development. 

3.  America  an  example  of  political  stability. 

4.  America  has  made  an  original  appeal  to  Europe  on 

behalf  of  the  dignity  of  labor. 

5.  Influence  of  our  educational  systems  and  our  litera- 

ture. 


Appendix  A  12.  127 

SHOULD  NEVADA  BE  DEPRIVED  OF  STATEHOOD. 

(Exposition.) 

1.  Statement  of  the  facts  about  Nevada. 

2.  Considerations  favoring  deprival  of  statehood. 

(a)  Decrease  in  population. 

(b)  Unjust  representation  in  Congress. 

(c)  Wealth  and  population  engaged    solely  in  the 

mining  interest. 

3.  Considerations  opposing  deprival  of  statehood, 
(a)  Vast  resources  of  the  State. 

(6)   Likelihood  of  future  growth. 

(c)    A  dangerous  precedent  would  be  established. 

4.  Summary  and  estimate  of  points,  concluding  that  the 

plan  proposed  is,  on  the  whole,  unwise. 


COLLEGE  EXAMINATIONS. 

(Method  of  Inquiry.) 

I.   Principles  sought. 

1.  Obviously  necessary  to  ascertain  fitness  for  ad- 

mission to 

(a)  The  learned  professions. 

(b)  The  civil  service. 

(c)  College.     But  (c)  is  modified  by 

(1)  Admission  by  diploma  from  accredited 

schools, 

(2)  Admission  by  certificate  from  teachers 

of  known  excellence. 

2.  The  purpose  in  examining  in  the   three   cases 

above  is 

To  ascertain  fitness  or  unfitness,  —  something 
unknown  to  the  examiners. 


128  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

II.   Antithesis.     But  in  college  this  cannot  be  the  pur- 
pose in  regard  to  most  students,  since 

1.  The  instructor  learns  the  attainments  of  his 
students  from  their  daily  work.  Modifica- 
tions of  1 : 

(a)  In  large  recitation  classes,  doubt  about  in- 
dividual cases. 
(6)   In  lecture  courses,  doubt  may  exist  about  all. 

III.  Partial  conclusions : 

1.  For   doubtful   cases,  examination  necessary  for 

information  of  instructor. 

2.  For  the  majority  of  students,  examination  unnec- 

essary for  this  purpose. 

3.  Kesultiug  alternatives :  either  abolish  for  (2)  or 

seek  further  reasons. 

IV.  The  real  purposes : 

1.  To  convince   unfaithful  students  of  their  defi- 

ciencies. 

2.  To  give  the  others  an  opportunity  for  compre- 

hensive review. 

3.  To   show   all  what   are   regarded  as   the   most 

important  points. 

V.   Application  of  principles  locally. 

HAMILTON  AND  JEFFERSON. 
(Exposition  by  Comparison  and  Contrast.) 

1.  Early  life  and  education.     Results  of  early  training. 

2.  Life  during  the  Revolution,  compared. 

3.  Their  work  on  the  Constitution,  compared, 
(a)  Principles  championed. 

(&)   Divergency  of  views. 


Appendix  A  12.  129 


4.  Their  positions  in  Washington's  cabinet. 

(a)  Hamilton's  financial  measures. 

(b)  Jefferson's  antagonism. 

5.  Subsequent  life,  contrasted. 

6.  Eesults  of  their  work,  compared. 


IDEAL  COMMONWEALTHS. 

(Division  of  a  Class.) 
Introduction : 

1.  The  longing  for  an  ideal  life  and  ideal  government. 

2.  Ideal  commonwealths  are  literary  outgrowths  of  this 

longing. 

Discussion : 

1.  Lycurgus's  State  (see  Plutarch's  Lives). 

(a)  Characteristic  features. 

(b)  Which  of  these  are  practicable  ? 

2.  Plato's    Republic    (see    Morley's    Universal    Library, 

No.  23). 

(a)  Characteristic  features. 

(b)  Socrates's  idea  of  justice. 

3.  More's  Utopia  (see  Morley's  Universal  Library,  No.  23). 

(a)  Features  in  common  with  the  preceding. 

(b)  Abuses  in  England,  hinted  at. 

4.  Campanella's  City  of  the  Sun  (see  Morley,  as  above). 

5.  Bacon's  New  Atlantis  (see  Morley,  as  above). 

6.  Sidney's  Arcadia. 

7.  Bellamy's  Looking  Backward. 

(a)  Parts  that  are  practicable. 

(b)  Parts  that  criticise  existing  evils. 

Conclusion : 

1.  Common  features  of  these  ideal  schemes. 

2.  Suggestive  value. 


1 30  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

THE  FUTURE  OF  ALASKA. 

(Exposition.) 
Introduction :   . 

1.  The  growth  of  a  country  depends  on 

(a)  Physical  environment  and  resources, 
(6)   Position  and  accessibility. 

2.  These  largely  determine 

(a)  The  character  of  the  people, 
(6)   Their  pursuits, 
(c)    Their  culture. 

Discussion :  Application  of  these  considerations  to  Alaska. 

1.  Position  unfavorable. 

2.  Physical  environments. 

(a)  Climate* 

(b)  Agricultural  lands. 

(c)  Manufacturing. 

(d)  Mining. 

(e)  Trading. 
(/)  Fisheries. 

3.  Character  of  the  people. 
(a)  The  natives. 

(&)   The  traders  and  miners. 

(c)   Eeligious  questions  involved. 

Conclusion :  Probabilities  of  future  growth  estimated. 
GOVERNMENT  OWNERSHIP  OF  EAILWAYS. 

(Exposition  and  Argument.) 
Introduction : 

1.  Eapid  growth,  magnitude,  and  importance  of  the  rail- 

way system. 

2.  Some  evils  and  abnormal  conditions. 


Appendix  A  12.  131 

Discussion : 

1.  Need  of  some  reform  evinced  by 

(a)  Disregard  of  public  good  by  corporations, 

(b)  The  failure  of  competition, 

(c)  Power  of  corporations  over  legislation. 

2.  Legal  methods  of  reform,  short  of  ownership. 

(a)  State  and  national  commissions  with  power  to 
force  fair  treatment. 

(6)  Withdrawal  of  franchises  in  case  of  gross  mis- 
management. 

(c)    Exaction  of  truthful  reports  from  the  roads. 

3.  Dangers  of  government  ownership. 

(a)  Mismanagement  and  loss.    Examples  from  foreign 

countries. 

(b)  Deterioration  of  roads  through  lack  of  interest. 

(c)  Opportunities  for  political  rings. 
Conclusion : 

1.  Government  ownership  not  the  solution. 

2.  Legal  methods  of  reform,  short  of  ownership,  sufficient. 

THE  BOOK-EOOM  OF  A  MODERN  LIBRARY. 

(Description.) 
Introduction : 

1.  Purpose. 

2.  Necessary  characteristics  —  convenience  and  simplic- 

ity. 

Discussion : 

1.  General  shape  and  approximate  size. 

2.  Number  of  stories  and  means  of  communication. 

3.  The  material  —  iron,  brick,  and  stone,  exclusively. 

4.  Provision  for  light. 

(a)  Location  of  windows. 
(6)   Location  of  gas-jets. 


132  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

5.  Bookcases. 

(a)  Number  and  accessibility. 

(b)  Symmetrical  division  and  distribution. 

(c)  System  of  numbering  cases,  shelves,  and  divisions. 

6.  Distribution  of  the  books. 

(a)  With  reference  to  subjects. 

(b)  With  reference  to  frequency  of  use. 

(c)  With  reference  to  the  parts  of  the  library. 

7.  To  whom  accessible  and  by  whom  used. 

Conclusion :   The   book-room   answers  the   requirements 
mentioned  in  the  introduction,  because  its  arrangement  is 

1.  Simple, 

2.  Convenient, 

3.  Symmetrical, 

4.  Systematic.  x 


THE  STORY  OF  RIP  VAN  WINKLE. 
(Narration.) 

1.  Where  and  when  he  lived  ;  condition  of  his  farm. 

2.  His  family  ;  how  they  prospered. 

3.  His  appearance,  character,  occupations. 

4.  The  important  expedition  of  his  life. 

(a)  Why,  when,  where. 

(b)  Sights  he  saw ;  acquaintance  ;  amphitheater ;  the 

game. 

(c)  The  effects  of  the  flagon  of  liquor. 

(d)  Waking  up  —  dog,  gun,  feelings. 

5.  The  return  homeward ;  changes  noticed. 

(a)  House,  inn,  people. 

(b)  His  reception,  perplexity,  recognition. 

(c)  Daughter,  wife. 

6.  How  he  passed  the  rest  of  his  life. 


.< 


Appendix  A  12.  133 

BIOGRAPHY  OF  AN  AUTHOR. 
(Narration.) 

1.  Birth  and  early  life. 

(a)  Time  and  place. 

(b)  Parentage. 

(c)  Surroundings. 

(d)  Result  of  early  influences. 

(e)  Early  character. 
(/)  Anecdote. 

2.  Education  and  travel. 

(a)  Places  of  education. 

(b)  Influences  and  their  effect. 

(c)  Friends  and  companions. 

(d)  Choice  of  vocation. 

(e)  Literary  attempts. 

(/)  Travel  —  influence,  and  results. 

3.  Career  as  a  writer. 

(a)  Publications  ;  their  success. 

(b)  Share  in  public  movements. 

(c)  Important  events. 

(d)  Friendships. 

(e)  Character  of  works  in  brief. 

4.  Death  —  time  and  place.     Estimate  of  character. 

5.  Influence  of  the  author  and  of  his  works. 

THE  COMBAT.     (SCOTT'S   Talisman.) 
(Narration.) 

1.  Time,   Third   Crusade.     Place,  the   Diamond  of  the 

Desert.     Persons,  Sir  Kenneth  and  Conrad. 

2.  Preparations, 
(a)  Arming.^ 

(6)   The  herald's  proclamation. 


134  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

(c)  Taking  positions. 

(d)  The  invocation. 

3.  The  encounter. 

(a)  Signal. 

(b)  Start. 

(c)  Career. 

(d)  Meeting. 

4.  Eesult  of  the  combat.     Effect  in  settling  the  dispute. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  TEMPORAL  POWER  OF  THE  POPE  FROM 

755  TO  1303. 

(Narration.) 

1.  Origin. 

(a)  Pippin's  v gift  to  Stefano  III.,  755  A.D. 
(&)   Agreement  between   Carolingians    and   Pontiffs, 
800  A.D. 

(1)  Extent  of  concessions  to  the  Pontiffs. 

(2)  Eesult  when  political  unity  ceased  and  relig- 

ious unity  remained. 

2.  Gradual  increase  of  power  up  to  the  time  of  Gregory 

VII. 
(a)  Heinrich  III.'s  gift,  to  the  Papacy,  of  Benevento, 

1053. 
(&)   Countess   Matilda's   bequest,  '  Patrimony   of   St. 

Peter,'  1073. 

3.  Rapid  accessions  of  power  under  Gregory  VII.,  1073. 
(a)  Gregory's  plans : 

(1)  To  free  the  Papacy  of  German  supremacy. 

(2)  To  increase  the  discipline  of  the  Church. 

(3)  To   make   the    Church   independent   of    any 

monarch. 

(4)  To  rule  people  and  princes  in  the  interest  of 

their  salvation. 

< 


Appendix  A  12.  135 

(b)  Their  realization : 

(1)  Humiliation  of  Henry  IV. 

(2)  Quarrel  over  investitures.      Resulting   com- 

promise. 

4.  Supremacy  of  the  Pope's  temporal  power,  1073  to  1250. 

(a)  Evidences. 

(b)  Final  fall  of  German  power  in  Italy. 

5.  Decline  and  loss  of  Pope's  temporal  power,  1295  to 

1303. 

(a)  Results  of  the  quarrel  with  Philip  the  Fair. 

(b)  Failure  under  Boniface  VIII. 


CONCILIATION  WITH  AMERICA. 

(Argument.) 

Burke,  urging  the  British  Parliament  to  grant  concessions 
to  the  American  colonies  before  it  should  be  too  late,  pre- 
sented the  following  arguments  :  — 

I.    The  condition  of  America  demands  concessions  on 
account  of 

1.  Its  large  and  increasing  population, 

2.  Its  valuable  commerce, 

3.  Its  advanced  agriculture, 

4.  Its  extensive  fisheries. 

II.    If  America  is  so  valuable,  it  may  be  thought  that 
force  is  justifiable  in  retaining  it.     But 

1.  Force  is  temporary,  war  cannot  be  perpetual, 

2.  Its  outcome   is   uncertain ;    it   may   fail   of  its 

object, 

3.  It  impairs  or  destroys  the  value  of  its  object, 

4.  It  cannot  be  justified  by  experience. 

III.   The  temper  and  character  of  the  Americans  call  for 
concessions.     Love  of  freedom  and  resistance  to 


136  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

oppression  are  their  chief  characteristics.     These 
have  been 

1.  Inherited  from  English  parentage, 

2.  Fostered  by  their  form  of  government, 

3.  Promoted  by  their  religion  and  domestic  insti- 

tutions, 

4.  Cultivated  by  their  education,  and 

5.  Confirmed  by  their  remoteness  from  England. 


THE  RELATION  OF  FICTION  TO  EELIGION. 

Exemplified  in  Ben  Hur. 

(Exposition  by  Example.) 
Introduction :     v 

1.  Growing  favor  of  the  religious  novel. 

2.  Some  of  its  requirements. 

(a)  A  respectful  tone  and  worthy  aims. 

(6)   A  sympathetic  treatment. 

(c)    A  strengthening  effect  on  the  reader. 

Discussion :  How  Ben  Hur  fulfils  these  essentials ; 

(a)  In  its  aims,  which  are 

(1)  To  show  the  intolerant  Roman  character, 

(2)  To  compare  and  contrast  Jew  and  Roman, 

(3)  To  imply  the  need  of  a  moral  revolution, 

(4)  To  show  Christ  as  an  historical  character, 

(5)  To  re-tell  the  story  of  his  life  in  a  novel  and 

attractive  way, 

(6)  To  set  forth  the  beauty  of  the  highest  type 

of  character. 
(6)    In  tone  and  treatment, 

(1)  It  exalts  the  personal  virtues, 

(2)  It  presents  types  of  heroism, 


Appendix  A  13.  137 

(3)  It  portrays  the  moral  awakening  of  nations, 

(4)  It  upholds  the  best  standards, 
(c)    In  effect  on  the  reader, 

(1)  It  strengthens  faith  in  goodness, 

(2)  It  adds  to  appreciation  of  what  is  best, 

(3)  It  cultivates  admiration  for  true  character. 

Conclusion : 

1.  Contrast  with  another  type  of  the  religious  novel. 

2.  The  popularity  of  Ben  Hur  accounted  for. 


13. 

A  close  analysis  and  outlining  of  the  thought  of  a  long 
paragraph  from  a  careful  author  will  always  give  evidence 
of  regular  structure  in  the  building  of  the  paragraph.  The 
main  thought-divisions  of  the  following  are  numbered  for 
the  sake  of  convenient  reference.  ' 

1.  The  originality  of  form  and  treatment  which  Macaulay  gave  to 
the  historical  essay  has  not,  perhaps,  received  due  recognition.  With- 
out having  invented  it,  he  so  greatly  improved  and  expanded  it  that  he 
deserves  nearly  as  much  credit  as  if  he  had.  He  did  for  the  historical 
essay  what  Haydn  did  for  the  sonata,  and  Watt  for  the  steam-engine : 
he  found  it  rudimentary  and  unimportant,  and  left  it  complete,  and 
a  thing  of  power.  2.  Before  his  time  there  was  the  ponderous  his- 
tory, generally  in  quarto,  and  there  was  the  antiquarian  dissertation. 
There  was  also  the  historical  review,  containing  alternate  pages  of  ex- 
tract and  comment,  generally  dull  and  gritty.  But  the  historical  essay, 
as  he  conceived  it,  and  with  the  prompt  inspiration  of  a  real  discoverer 
immediately  put  into  practical  shape,  was  as  good  as  unknown  before 
him.  3.  To  take  a  bright  period  or  personage  of  history,  to  frame  it 
in  a  firm  outline,  to  conceive  it  at  once  in  article  size,  and  then  to  fill 
in  this  limited  canvas  with  sparkling  anecdote,  telling  bits  of  color, 
and  fact's  all  fused  together  by  a  real  genius  for  narrative,  was  the 
sort  of  genre-painting  which  Macaulay  applied  to  history.  4.  And  to 
this  day  his  essays  remain  the  best  of  their  class,  not  only  in  England, 
but  in  Europe.  Slight,  or  even  trivial,  in  the  field  of  historical  erudi- 
tion and  critical  inquiry,  they  are  masterpieces  if  regarded  in  the  light 


138  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

of  great  popular  cartoons  on  subjects  taken  from  modern  history. 
They  are  painted,  indeed,  with  such  freedom,  vividness,  and  power, 
that  they  may  be  said  to  enjoy  a  sort  of  tacit  monopoly  of  the  periods 
and  characters  to  which  they  refer,  in  the  estimation  of  the  general 
public.  —  J.  Cotter  Morison. 


ANALYSIS  BY  THOUGHT-DIVISIONS. 

1.  Macaulay  gave  to  the  historical  essay  originality  of  form  and  treatment, 
(a)  He  did  not  invent  it,  but 

(6)  He  improved  it  greatly.    (Parallel  cases  — Haydn  and  Watt.) 
(c)  He  found  it  rudimentary  and  left  it  complete. 

2.  Forms  of  historical  writing,  before  Macaulay. 
(a)  The  ponderous  history. 

(6)  The  dissertation, 
(c)  The  review. 

3.  In  what  consisted  Macaulay's  originality  of  treatment. 

(a)  Selection  of  effective  points  and  periods  and  telling  personages. 
(6)  Framing  the  selected  period  or  personage  in  firm  outline  —  Unity, 
(c)  A  sense  of  due  proportion.    Genius  for  narrative. 

4.  His  essays  the  best  of  their  class. 

(a)  Others  surpass  them  in  erudition  and  critical  research,  but 

(6)  They  are  masterpieces  if  judged  as  specimens  of  broad,  popular  treatment. 

(c)  They  have  a  monopoly  of  the  periods  and  characters  treated  by  them. 

Analyze  the  following  paragraphs  according  to  their 
thought-divisions :  — 

It  is  important,  therefore,  to  hold  fast  to  this :  that  poetry  is  at 
bottom  a  criticism  of  life ;  that  the  greatness  of  a  poet  lies  in  his 
powerful  and  beautiful  application  of  ideas  to  life,  —  to  the  question : 
How  to  live.  Morals  are  often  treated  in  a  narrow  and  false  fashion, 
they  are  bound  up  with  systems  of  thought  and  belief  which  have  had 
their  day,  they  are  fallen  into  the  hands  of  pedants  *and  professional 
dealers,  they  grow  tiresome  to  some  of  us.  We  find  attraction,  at 
times,  even  in  a  poetry  of  revolt  against  them ;  in  a  poetry  which 
might  take  for  its  motto  Omar  Kheyam's  words:  "Let  us  make  up 
in  the  tavern  for  the  time  which  we  have  wasted  in  the  Mosque." 
Or  we  find  attractions  in  a  poetry  indifferent  to  them,  in  a  poetry 
where  the  contents  may  be  what  they  will,  but  where  the  form  is 
studied  and  exquisite.  We  delude  ourselves  in  either  case  ;  and  the 
best  cure  for  our  delusion  is  to  let  our  minds  rest  upon  that  great  and 
inexhaustible  word  life,  until  we  learn  to  enter  into  its  meaning.  A 
poetry  of  revolt  against  moral  ideas  is  a  poetry  of  revolt  against  life  ; 


Appendix  A  13.  139 

a  poetry  of  indifference  toward  moral  ideas  is  a  poetry  of  indifference 
towards  life.  —  Matthew  Arnold  :  Preface  to  Wordsworth's  Poems. 

The  qualities  of  the  great  masters  in  art  or  literature,  the  combina- 
tion of  those  qualities,  the  laws  by  which  they  moderate,  support, 
relieve  each  other,  are  not  peculiar  to  them ;  but  most  often  typical 
standards,  revealing  instances,  of  the  laws  by  which  certain  aesthetic 
effects  are  produced.  The  old  masters  indeed  are  simpler ;  their 
characteristics  are  written  larger,  and  are  easier  to  read,  than  their 
analogues  in  all  the  mixed  confused  productions  of  the  modern  mind. 
But  when  once  one  has  succeeded  in  defining  for  oneself  those  char- 
acteristics, and  the  law  of  their  combination,  one  has  acquired  a 
standard  or  measure  which  helps  us  to  put  in  its  right  place  many  a 
vagrant  genius,  many  an  unclassified  talent,  many  precious  though 
imperfect  products.  It  is  so  with  the  components  of  the  true  char- 
acter of  Michelangelo.  That  strange  interfusion  of  sweetness  and 
strength  is  not  to  be  found  in  those  who  claimed  to  be  his  followers  ; 
but  it  is  found  in  many  of  those  who  worked  before  him,  and  'in 
many  others  down  to  our  own  time,  in  William  Blake,  for  instance, 
and  Victor  Hugo,  who,  though  not  of  his  school,  and  unaware,  are  his 
true  sons,  and  help  us  to  understand  him,  as  he  in  turn  interprets  and 
justifies  them.  Perhaps  this  is  the  chief  use  in  studying  old  masters. 
—  Pater:  The  Renaissance,  p.  88. 

That  no  great  political  improvement,  however  plausible  or  attrac- 
tive it  may  appear,  can  be  productive  of  lasting  benefit,  unless  it  is 
preceded  by  a  change  in  public  opinion,  and  that  every  change  of 
public  opinion  is  preceded  by  changes  in  knowledge,  are  propositions 
which  all  history  verifies,  but  which  are  particularly  obvious  in  the  his- 
tory of  Spain.  The  Spaniards  have  had  everything  except  knowledge. 
They  have  had  immense  wealth,  and  fertile  and  well-peopled  terri- 
tories, in  all  parts  of  the  globe.  Their  own  country,  washed  by  the 
Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  and  possessed  of  excellent  harbors, 
is  admirably  situated  for  the  purposes  of  trade  between  Europe  and 
America,  being  so  placed  as  to  command  the  commerce  of  both  hemi- 
spheres. They  had  at  a  very  early  period,  ample  municipal  privi- 
leges ;  they  had  independent  parliaments ;  they  had  the  right  of 
choosing  their  own  magistrates,  and  managing  their  own  cities.  They 
have  had  rich  and  flourishing  towns,  abundant  manufactures  and 
skilful  artisans,  whose  choice  productions  could  secure  a  ready  sale  in 
every  market  in  the  world.  They  have  cultivated  the  fine  arts  with 
eminent  success.  .  .  .  They  speak  a  beautiful,  sonorous  and  flexible 
language,  and  their  literature  is  not  unworthy  of  their  language. 


140  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Their  soil  yields  treasures  of  every  kind.  ...  In  short,  nature  has 
been  so  prodigal  of  her  bounty,  that  it  has  been  observed,  with  hardly 
an  hyperbole,  that  the  Spanish  nation  possesses  within  itself  nearly 
every  natural  production  which  can  satisfy  either  the  necessity  or  the 
curiosity  of  mankind.  —  Buckle :  History  of  Civilization,  Vol.  II. 
pp.  583-585. 

The  truth  is,  that  by  economy  and  good  management  —  by  a  sparing 
use  of  ready  money  and  by  paying  scarcely  anybody  —  people  can 
manage,  for  a  time  at  least,  to  make  a  great  show  with  very  little 
means.  ...  If  every  person  is  to  be  banished  from  society  who 
runs  into  debt  and  cannot  pay,  — if  we  are  to  be  peering  into  every- 
body's private  life,  speculating  upon  their  income,  and  cutting  them  if 
we  don't  approve  of  their  expenditure,  — why,  what  a  howling  wilder- 
ness and  intolerable  dwelling  Vanity  Fair  would  be.  Every  man's 
hand  would  be  against  his  neighbor  in  this  case,  my  dear  sir,  and 
the  benefits  of  civilization  would  be  done  away  with.  We  should  be 
quarreling,  abusing,  avoiding  one  another.  Our  houses  would  become 
caverns  :  and  we  should  go  in  rags  because  we  cared  for  nobody. 
Rents  would  go  down.  Parties  wouldn't  be  given  any  more.  All 
the  tradesmen  of  the  town  would  be  bankrupt.  Wine,  wax-lights, 
comestibles,  rouge,  crinoline-petticoats,  diamonds,  wigs,  old  china, 
park  hacks  and  splendid  high-stepping  carriage-horses  —  all  the  de- 
lights of  life,  I  say,  would  go  to  the  deuce,  if  people  did  but  act  upon 
their  silly  principles,  and  avoid  those  whom  they  dislike  and  abuse. 
Whereas,  by  a  little  charity  and  mutual  forbearance,  things  are  made 
to  go  on  pleasantly  enough:  we  may  abuse  a  man  as  much  as  we 
like,  and  call  him  the  greatest  rascal  unhung,  —  but  do  we  wish  to 
hang  him  therefor  ?  No ;  we  shake  hands  when  we  meet.  If  his 
cook  is  good  we  forgive  him,  and  go  and  dine  with  him ;  and  we 
expect  he  will  do  the  same  by  us.  Thus  trade  flourishes  —  civilization 
advances  ;  peace  is  kept ;  new  dresses  are  wanted  for  new  assemblies 
every  week ;  and  the  last  year's  vintage  of  Lafitte  will  remunerate  the 
honest  proprietor  who  reared  it.  —  Thackeray :  Vanity  Fair. 

Equally,  throughout  the  whole  nature,  may  be  traced  the  law  that 
exercised  faculties  are  ever  tending  to  resume  their  original  state.  Not 
only  after  continued  rest,  do  they  regain  their  full  power  —  not  only 
do  brief  cessations  partially  reinvigorate  them ;  but  even  while  they 
are  in  action,  the  resulting  exhaustion  is  ever  being  neutralized.  The 
two  processes  of  waste  and  repair  go  on  together.  Hence  with  facul- 
ties habitually  exercised  —  as  the  senses  of  all  persons,  or  the  muscles 
of  any  one  who  is  strong  —  it  happens  that,  during  moderate  activity, 


Appendix  B.  141 

the  repair  is  so  nearly  equal  to  the  waste,  that  the  diminution  of 
power  is  scarcely  appreciable ;  and  it  is  only  when  the  activity  has 
been  long  continued,  or  has  been  very  violent,  that  the  repair  becomes 
so  far  in  arrear  of  the  waste  as  to  produce  a  perceptible  prostration. 
In  all  cases,  however,  when,  by  the  action  of  a  faculty,  waste  has  been 
incurred,  some  lapse  of  time  must  take  place  before  full  efficiency  can 
be  reacquired  ;  and  this  time  must  be  long  in  proportion  as  the  waste 
has  been  great.  —  Spencer :  Philosophy  of  Style. 


APPENDIX   B. 

A  selected  list  of  typical  paragraphs  of  many  kinds  and 
from  many  sources,  to  be  used  by  the  student  for  the  vari- 
ous exercises  prescribed  in  the  text. 

In  the  long  lists  of  reformers  and  philanthropists,  like  a  planet 
among  lesser  stars,  stands  out  the  name  of  John  Howard,  who  at- 
tacked with  indefatigable  ardor  and  industry  the  hideous  abuses  ex- 
istent in  the  prisons.  Each  jail  in  the  country  was  a  festering  social 
sore,  a  den  in  which  decency,  cleanliness,  or  discipline  was  unknown 
and  in  which  every  abomination  was  practiced.  He  visited  them  all, 
collected  evidence  of  the  extortion,  cruelty,  favoritism,  and  vice  which 
marked  their  management,  and  startled  the  public  conscience  by  the 
terrors  of  his  story.  He  did  not  see  the  results  of  the  labors  which 
cost  him  his  life,  but  his  fame  will  always  be  associated  with  the  great 
work  of  social  reformation  in  England,  which  began  more  than  a  hun- 
dred years  ago  and  can  never  cease  until  civilization  itself  is  ended. 

Eree  government  is  self-government  —  a  government  of  the  people 
by  the  people.  The  best  government  of  this  sort  is  that  which  the 
people  think  best.  An  imposed  government,  a  government  like  that 
of  the  English  in  India,  may  very  possibly  be  better  ;  it  may  represent 
the  views  of  a  higher  race  than  the  governed  race  ;  but  it  is  not  there- 
fore a  free  government.  A  free  government  is  that  which  the  people 
subject  to  it  voluntarily  choose.  In  a  casual  collection  of  loose  people 
the  only  possible  free  government  is  a  democratic  government.  Where 
no  one  knows  or  cares  for  or  respects  any  one  else,  all  must  rank 
equal ;  no  one's  opinion  can  be  more  potent  than  that  of  another. 
But,  as  has  been  explained,  a  deferential  nation  has  a  structure  of  its 
own.  Certain  persons  are  by  common  consent  agreed  to  be  wiser 


142  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

than  others,  and  their  opinion  is,  by  consent,  to  rank  for  much  more 
than  its  numerical  value.  We  may  in  these  happy  nations  weigh 
votes  as  well  as  count  them,  though  in  less  favored  countries  we  can 
count  only.  But  in  free  nations,  the  votes  so  weighed  or  so  counted 
must  decide.  A  perfect  free  government  is  one  which  decides  per- 
fectly according  to  those  votes  ;  an  imperfect,  one  which  so  decides 
imperfectly  ;  a  bad,  one  which  does  not  so  decide  at  all.  Public  opin- 
ion is  the  test  of  this  polity  ;  the  best  opinion  which,  with  its  existing 
habits  of  deference,  the  nation  will  accept :  if  the  free  government 
goes  by  that  opinion,  it  is  a  good  government  of  its  species  ;  if  it  con- 
travenes that  opinion,  it  is  a  bad  one.  — Bagehot :  The  English  Con- 
stitution, p.  221. 

There  is  in  an  English  collection  a  portrait  of  Jean  Jacques,  which 
was  painted  during  his  residence  in  this  country  by  a  provincial  artist, 
and  which,  singular  and  displeasing  as  it  is,  yet  lights  up  for  us  many 
a  word  and  passage  in  Rousseau's  life  here  and  elsewhere,  which  the 
ordinary  engravings,  and  the  trim  self-complacency  of  the  statue  on 
the  little  island  at  Geneva,  would  leave  very  incomprehensible.  It  is 
almost  as  appalling  in  its  realism  as  some  of  the  dark  pits  that  open 
before  the  reader  of  the  Confessions.  Hard  struggles  with  objective 
difficulty  and  external  obstacle  wear  deep  furrows  in  the  brow,  and 
throw  into  the  glance  a  solicitude,  half  penetrating  and  defiant,  half 
dejected.  When  a  man's  hindrances  have  sprung  up  from  within, 
and  the  ill-fought  battle  of  his  days  has  been  with  his  own  passions 
and  morbid  breedings  and  unchastened  dreams,  the  eye  and  the  facial 
lines  that  stamp  character  tell  the  story  of  that  profound  moral  de- 
feat, which  is  unlighted  by  the  memories  of  resolute  combat  with  evil 
and  weakness,  and  leaves  only  external  desolation  and  the  misery 
that  is  formless.  Our  English  artist  has  produced  a  vision  from  that 
prose  Infer  no'  which  is  made  so  populous  in  the  modern  epoch  by 
impotence  of  will,  and  those  who  have  seen  the  picture,  may  easily 
understand  how  largely  the  character  of  the  original,  at  the  time  when 
it  was  painted,  must  have  been  pregnant  with  harassing  confusion 
and  distress.  —  Morley :  fiousseau,  Vol.  II.  p.  282. 

The  Americans  of  1787  thought  they  were  copying  the  English 
Constitution,  but  they  were  contriving  a  contrast  to  it.  Just  as  the 
American  is  the  type  of  composite  governments,  in  which  the  supreme 
power  is  divided  between  many  bodies  and  functionaries,  so  the  Eng- 
lish is  the  type  of  simple  constitutions,  in  which  the  ultimate  power 
upon  all  questions  is  in  the  hands  of  the  same  persons.  —  Bagehot : 
The  English  Constitution,  p.  295. 


Appendix  B.  143 

The  history  of  this,  as  of  all  nations  (or  so  much  of  it  as  there  is 
occasion  for  any  of  us  to  know),  is  the  history  of  the  battles  which 
it  has  fought  and  won  with  evil ;  not  with  political  evil  merely,  or 
spiritual  evil ;  but  with  all  manifestations  whatsoever  of  the  devil's 
power.  We  learn  in  it  to  sympathize  with  what  is  great  and  good ; 
we  learn  to  hate  what  is  base.  In  the  anomalies  of  fortune  we  feel 
the  mystery  of  our  mortal  existence  ;  and  in  the  companionship  of 
the  illustrious  natures  who  have  shaped  the  fortunes  of  the  world, 
we  escape  from  the  littleness  which  clings  to  the  round  of  common 
life,  and  our  minds  are  tuned  in  a  higher  and  nobler  key.  — Froude. 

In  the  centre  of  the  court,  under  the  blue  Italian  sky,  and  with  the 
hundred  windows  of  the  vast  palace  gazing  down  upon  it,  from  four 
sides,  appears  a  fountain.  It  brims  over  from  one  stone  basin  to 
another,  or  gushes  from  a  Naiad's  urn,  or  spirts  its  many  little  jets 
from  the  mouths  of  nameless  monsters,  which  were  merely  grotesque 
and  artificial  when  Bernini,  or  whoever  was  their  unnatural  father, 
first  produced  them  ;  but  now  the  patches  of  moss,  the  tufts  of  grass, 
the  trailing  maiden-hair,  and  all  sorts  of  verdant  weeds  that  thrive  in 
the  cracks  and  crevices  of  moist  marble,  tell  us  that  Nature  takes  the 
fountain  back  into  her  great  heart,  and  cherishes  it  as  kindly  as  if 
it  were  a  woodland  spring.  And,  hark,  the  pleasant  murmur,  the 
gurgle,  the  plash  !  You  might  hear  just  those  tinkling  sounds  from 
any  tiny  waterfall  in  the  forest,  though  here  they  gain  a  delicious 
pathos  from  the  stately  echoes  that  reverberate  their  natural  language. 
So  the  fountain  is  not  altogether  glad,  after  all  its  three  centuries  of 
play  !  —  Hawthorne  :  Marble  Faun,  chap.  v. 

I  know  nothing  in  the  world  tenderer  than  the  pity  that  a  kind- 
hearted  young  girl  has  for  a  young  man  who  feels  lonely.  It  is  true  that 
these  dear  creatures  are  all  compassion  for  every  form  of  human  woe, 
and  anxious  to  alleviate  all  human  misfortunes.  They  will  go  to  Sun- 
day-schools, through  storms  their  brothers  are  afraid  of,  to  teach  the 
most  unpleasant  and  intractable  classes  of  little  children  the  age  of 
Methuselah  and  the  dimensions  of  Og  the  king  of  Bashan's  bedstead. 
They  will  stand  behind  a  table  at  a  fair  all  day  until  they  are  ready 
to  drop,  dressed  in  their  prettiest  clothes  and  their  sweetest  smiles, 
and  lay  hands  upon  you,  —  to  make  you  buy  what  you  do  not  want, 
at  prices  which  you  cannot  afford  ;  all  this  as  cheerfully  as  if  it  were 
not  martyrdom  to  them  as  well  as  to  you.  Such  is  their  love  for  all 
good  objects,  such  their  eagerness  to  sympathize  with  all  their  suffer- 
ing fellow-creatures  !  But  there  is  nothing  they  pity  as  they  pity  a 
lonely  young  man.  —  Holmes  :  The  Poet  at  the  Breakfast- Table. 


144  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

The  use  of  the  House  of  Lords  —  or,  rather,  of  the  Lords,  in  its 
dignified  capacity  —  is  very  great.  It  does  not  attract  so  much  rever- 
ence as  the  Queen,  but  it  attracts  very  much.  The  office  of  an  order 
of  nobility  is  to  impose  on  the  common  people  —  not  necessarily  to  im- 
pose on  them  what  is  untrue,  yet  less  what  is  hurtful ;  but  still  to  im- 
pose on  their  quiescent  imaginations  what  would  not  otherwise  be  there. 
The  fancy  of  the  mass  of  men  is  incredibly  weak ;  it  can  see  nothing 
without  a  visible  symbol,  and  there  is  much  that  it  can  scarcely  make 
out  with  a  symbol.  Nobility  is  the  symbol  of  mind.  It  has  the  marks 
from  which  the  mass  of  men  always  used  to  infer  mind,  and  often  still 
infer  it.  A  common  clever  man  who  goes  into  a  country  place  will 
get  no  reverence  ;  but  the  "  old  squire  "  will  get  reverence.  Even  after 
he  is  insolvent,  when  every  one  knows  that  his  ruin  is  but  a  question 
of  time,  he  will  get  five  times  as  much  respect  from  the  common  peas- 
antry as  the  newly-made  rich  man  who  sits  beside  him.  The  common 
peasantry  will  listen  to  his  nonsense  more  submissively  than  to  the 
new  man's  sense.  An  old  lord  will  get  infinite  respect.  His  very  ex- 
istence is  so  far  useful*  that  it  awakens  the  sensation  of  obedience  to  a 
sort  of  mind  in  the  coarse,  dull,  contracted  multitude,  who  could 
neither  appreciate  or  perceive  any  other.  —  Bagehot :  The  English 
Constitution,  p.  157. 

All  education  is,  in  a  sense,  education  of  will.  Of  course,  for  scien- 
tific exactness,  we  distinguish  will  from  other  activities  of  mind,  and  we 
may  for  convenience  here  assume  the  ordinary  psychological  division 
into  intelligence,  emotion  and  will ;  but  it  is  an  elementary  common- 
place of  psychology,  that  though  these  activities  are  distinguishable 
in  thought,  they  are  not  to  be  treated  as  if  they  were  usually  sepa- 
rated in  mental  life.  Will  is  therefore  not  to  be  conceived  as  an 
activity  in  itself,  capable  of  being  isolated  from  intelligence  and 
emotion.  In  such  isolation  it  is  unreal  abstraction,  it  is  merely  the 
abstract  concept  which  physical  science  finds  useful  for  its  purposes 
under  the  name  of  force.  As  a  concrete  reality,  will  is  active  intelli- 
gence stimulated  by  emotion :  or,  as  it  may  equally  well  be  described, 
it  is  active  emotion  directed  by  intelligence.  —  J.  C.  Murray  :  Educa- 
tional Review,  June,  1891. 

It  is  so  easy  to  feel  pride  and  satisfaction  in  one's  own  things,  so 
hard -to  make  sure  that  one  is  right  in  feeling  it !  We  have  a  great 
empire.  But  so  had  Nebuchadnezzar.  We  extol  the  "  unrivalled 
happiness"  of  our  national  civilisation.  But  then  comes  a  candid 
friend,  and  remarks  that  our  upper  class  is  materialised,  our  middle 
class  vulgarised,  and  our  lower  class  brutalised.  We  are  proud  of  our 


Appendix  B.  145 

painting,  our  music.  But  we  find  that  in  the  judgment  of  other  people 
our  painting  is  questionable,  and  our  music  non-existent.  We  are 
proud  of  our  men  of  science.  And  here  it  turns  out  that  the  world  is 
with  us ;  we  find  that  in  the  judgment  of  other  people,  too,  Newton 
among  the  dead,  and  Mr.  Darwin  among  the  living,  hold  as  high  a 
place  as  they  hold  in  our  national  opinion.  —  Matthew  Arnold :  Preface 
to  Wordsworth's  Poems. 

This  was  the  physiognomy  of  the  drawing-room  into  which  Lydgate 
was  shown  ;  and  there  were  three  ladies  to  receive  him,  who  were  also 
old-fashioned,  and  of  a  faded  but  genuine  respectability :  Mrs.  Fare- 
brother,  the  Vicar's  white-haired  mother,  bef rilled  and  kerchiefed  with 
dainty  cleanliness,  upright,  quick-eyed,  and  still  under  seventy  ;  Miss 
Noble,  her  sister,  a  tiny  old  lady  of  meeker  aspect,  with  frills  and 
kerchief  decidedly  more  worn  and  mended ;  and  Miss  Winifred  Fare- 
brother,  the  Vicar's  elder  sister,  well-looking  like  himself;  but  nipped 
and  subdued  as  single  women  are  apt  to  be  who  spend  their  lives  in 
uninterrupted  subjection  to  their  elders.  Lydgate  had  not  expected 
to  see  so  quaint  a  group :  knowing  simply  that  Mr.  Farebrother  was  a 
bachelor,  he  had  thought  of  being  ushered  into  a  snuggery  where  the 
chief  furniture  would  probably  be  books  and  collections  of  natural 
objects.  The  Vicar  himself  seemed  to  wear  rather  a  changed  aspect, 
as  most  men  do  when  acquaintances  made  elsewhere  see  them  for  the 
first  time  in  their  own  homes.  —  George  Eliot :  Middlemarch. 

Next  to  the  knowledge  of  the  fact  and  its  law  is  method,  which  con- 
stitutes the  genius  and  efficiency  of  all  remarkable  men.  A  crowd  of 
men  go  up  to  Faneuil  Hall ;  they  are  all  pretty  well  acquainted  with 
the  object  of  the  meeting ;  they  have  all  read  the  facts  m  the  same 
newspapers.  The  orator  possesses  no  information  which  his  hearers 
have  not;  yet  he  teaches  them  to  see  the  thing  with  his  eyes.  By 
the  new  placing,  the  circumstances  acquire  new  solidity  and  worth. 
Every  fact  gains  consequence  by  his  naming  it,  and  trifles  become 
important.  His  expressions  fix  themselves  in  men's  memories,  and 
fly  from  mouth  to  mouth.  His  mind  has  some  new  principle  of 
order.  Where  he  looks  all  things  fly  into  their  places.  What  will  he 
say  next  ?  Let  this  man  speak,  and  this  man  only.  —  Emerson : 
Eloquence. 

Finally,  Gentlemen,  I  have  one  advice  to  give  you,  which  is  practi- 
cally of  very  great  importance,  though  a  very  humble  one.  In  the 
midst  of  our  zeal  and  ardor, — for  such,  I  forsee,  will  rise  high 
enough,  in  spite  of  all  the  counsels  to  moderate  it,  I  can  give  you,  — 
remember  the  care  of  health.  I  have  no  doubt  you  have  among  you 


146  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

young  souls  ardently  bent  to  consider  life  cheap,  for  the  purpose  of 
getting  forward  in  what  they  are  aiming  at  of  high  ;  but  you  are  to 
consider  throughout,  much  more  than  is  done  at  present,  and  what  it 
would  have  been  a  very  great  thing  for  me  if  I  had  been  able  to  con- 
sider, that  health  is  a  thing  to  be  attended  to  continually ;  that  you 
are  to  regard  that  as  the  very  highest  of  all  temporal  things  for  you. 
There  is  no  kind  of  achievement  you  could  make  in  the  world  that  is 
equal  to  perfect  health.  What  to  it  are  nuggets  and  millions  ?  The 
French  financier  said,  "  Why,  is  there  no  sleep  to  be  sold  !  "  Sleep 
was  not  in  the  market  at  any  quotation.  —  Carlyle. 

The  Caesars  have  perished,  and  their  palaces  are  in  ruins.  The 
empire  of  Charlemagne  has  risen,  like  one  of  those  gorgeous  clouds 
we  often  admire,  brilliant  with  the  radiance  of  the  setting  sun  ;  and, 
like  that  cloud,  it  has  vanished  forever.  Charles  V.  has  marshaled 
the  armies  of  Europe  around  his  throne,  and  has  almost  rivalled  the 
Csesars  in  the  majesty  of  his  sway ;  and,  like  a  dream,  the  vision  of 
his  universal  empire  has  fled.  — J.  S.  C.  Abbott :  History  of  Christian- 
ity, p.  14. 

No  body  can  be  heathful  without  exercise,  neither  natural  body 
nor  politic  ;  and  certainly  to  a  kingdom  or  estate,  a  just  and  honour- 
able war  is  the  true  exercise.  A  civil  war,  indeed,  is  like  the  heat  of 
a  fever :  but  a  foreign  war  is  like  the  heat  of  exercise,  and  serveth  to 
keep  the  body  in  health ;  for  in  a  slothful  peace  both  courages  will 
effeminate,  and  manners  corrupt.  But  howsoever  it  be  for  happiness, 
without  all  question  for  greatness  it  maketh  to  be  still  for  the  most 
part  in  arms :  and  the  strength  of  a  veteran  army  (though  it  be  a 
chargeable  business),  always  on  foot,  is  that  which  commonly  giveth 
the  law,  or,  at  least,  the  reputation,  amongst  all  neighbour  states ;  as 
may  well  be  seen  in  Spain ;  which  hath  had,  in  one  part  or  other,  a 
veteran  army  almost  continually,  now  by  the  space  of  six-score  years. 
—  Bacon  :  Civil  and  Moral  Essays,  p.  207. 

Home  affections  are  the  first  and  the  last  of  human  attachments ; 
they  begin  with  the  first  opening  of  the  soul,  and  they  abide  when  all 
other  feelings  have  faded  away.  Families  are  the  unity  of  which 
society  is  composed,  as  tissue  is  made  of  cells,  and  matter  of  mole- 
cules. The  attractions  of  parent  and  child,  man  and  wife,  brother 
and  sister,  are  fundamental  and  primary.  They  are  the  deep  roots 
from  which  social  life  is  developed.  According  as  the  family  is,  so  is 
the  State. — J.  F.  Clarke:  Self  -  Culture ;  The  Affections  and  Social 
Powers,  p.  225. 

It  has  been  frequently  remarked,  that  the  period  of  the  highest 


Appendix  B.  147 

literary  glory  of  civilized  nations  is  generally  found  to  follow  close  on 
some  remarkable  or  portentous  achievements  in  commerce  or  in  war. 
Among  the  ancient  Greeks,  the  combination  of  great  literary  names 
in  the  age  of  Pericles  follows  the  defeat  of  the  Persians.  The  Roman 
age  of  Augustus,  when  that  mighty  nation  was  resting  from  her 
conquests,  produced  the  same  galaxy  of  genius.  In  the  same  way, 
the  famous  literary  age  of  Louis  XIV  was  certainly  prepared,  if  not 
produced,  by  the  religious  wars  of  the  Reformation,  and  after  the 
national  enthusiasm  had  been  excited  by  the  success  of  the  French 
arms  in  Germany  and  Flanders.  In  our  own  case  a  gigantic  revolu- 
tion had  been  accomplished.  The  intellect  of  England  had  been 
engaged  in  a  violent  struggle  for  religious  liberty,  and  the  nation  now 
started  on  its  race  of  poetical  immortality.  —  Graham. 

It  must  never  be  forgotten,  in  discussing  the  past  and  present  of 
Oxford  or  Cambridge,  that  the  university  and  most  of  its  colleges 
were  originally  ecclesiastical  institutions,  dating  from  the  time  when 
there  was  complete  communion  and  accord  between  the  Church  of 
England  and  the  Papacy.  The  colleges  were  originally,  like  the  old 
hospitals,  eleemosynary  establishments,  and  like  the  monasteries,  under 
a  common  rule  of  life  and  intended  primarily  for  religious  purposes. 
From  the  original  statutes  of  the  colleges,  moreover,  it  is  abundantly 
clear  that  they  were  in  many  cases  founded  "ad  studendum,"  i.e., 
with  the  idea  that  the  inmates  should  devote  themselves  to  study, 
not  to  teaching.  Their  founders  desired  their  inmates  to  acquire  more 
learning  themselves,  but  did  not  require  them  to  impart  more  learning 
to  others.  After  the  Reformation,  the  compromise  between  Catholi- 
cism and  Protestantism,  which  is  the  basis  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  and  the  Church  of  England,  was  fully  reflected  in  the  university 
and  its  colleges.  The  old  statutes  were  retained  and  professedly 
respected,  but  practices  which  those  statutes  enjoined  were  disregarded. 
The  universities  remained,  indeed,  the  nursery  of  the  clergy  and  the 
headquarters  of  ecclesiastical  learning,  but  as  the  Anglican  Church 
now  professes  to  be  both  Catholic  and  Protestant,  and  is  really  neither, 
but  only  Anglican,  so  the  universities  then  professed  to  be  national 
and  religious,  but  were  neither,  and  only  academic.  In  1850  their 
position  had  become  incompatible  with  the  England  of  Free  Trade ; 
and  the  Royal  Commission  appointed  that  year  as  the  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Commission,  while  a  similar  Commission  was  appointed  for 
Cambridge,  was  the  recognition  of  the  fact.  —  Contemporary  Review, 
November,  1892,  p.  694. 

A  man  cannot  speak  but  he  judges  himself.      With  his  will,  or 


148  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

against  his  will,  he  draws  his  portrait  to  the  eye  of  his  companions 
by  every  word.  Every  opinion  reacts  on  him  who  utters  it.  It  is  a 
thread-ball  thrown  at  a  mark,  but  the  other  end  remains  in  the  throw- 
er's bag.  Or,  rather,  it  is  a  harpoon  hurled  at  the  whale,  unwinding, 
as  it  flies,  a  coil  of  cord  in  the  boat :  and  if  the  harpoon  is  not  good  or 
not  well  thrown,  it  will  go  nigh  to  cut  the  steersman  in  twain,  or  to 
sink  the  boat.  —  Emerson  :  Compensation,  p.  273. 

Covetousness  is  not  natural  to  man  —  generosity  is  ;  but  covetous- 
ness  must  be  excited  by  a  special  cause,  as  a  given  disease  by  a  given 
miasma  ;  and  the  essential  nature  of  a  material  for  the  excitement  of 
covetousness  is,  that  it  shall  be  a  beautiful  thing  which  can  be  retained 
without  a  use.  The  moment  we  can  use  our  possessions  to  any  good 
purpose  ourselves,  the  instinct  of  communicating  that  use  to  others 
rises  side  by  side  with  our  power.  If  you  can  read  a  book  rightly, 
you  will  want  others  to  hear  it ;  if  you  can  enjoy  a  picture  rightly, 
you  will  want  others  to  see  it :  learn  how  to  manage  a  horse,  a  plough, 
or  a  ship,  and  you  will  desire  to  make  your  subordinates  good  horse- 
men, ploughmen,  or  sailors :  you  will  never  be  able  to  see  the  fine 
instrument  you  are  *  master  of,  abused ;  but  once  fix  your  desire  on 
anything  useless,  and  all  the  purest  pride  and  folly  in  your  heart  will 
mix  with  the  desire,  and  make  you  at  last  wholly  inhuman,  a  mere 
ugly  lump  of  stomach  and  suckers,  like  a  cuttle-fish.  —  Ruskin : 
Ethics  of  the  Dust,  Valley  of  Diamonds,  p.  18. 

The  evidences  of  the  Christian  religion  may  be  sufficient  and  yet  not 
so  strong  as  inevitably  to  produce  conviction.  Our  conduct  in  the 
pursuit  and  reception  of  truth  may  be  intended  by  our  Creator  to  be 
an  important  part  of  the  probation  to  which  we  are  subjected ;  and 
therefore  the  evidence  of  revelation  is  not  so  great  as  to  be  irresistible, 
but  is  of  such  a  kind  that  the  sincere  and  diligent  inquirer  will  be  in 
no  danger  of  fatal  mistake  ;  while  men  of  pride  and  prejudice,  who 
prefer  darkness  to  light,  will  be  almost  sure  to  err.  —  Alexander : 
Evidences  of  Christianity,  p.  91. 

We  are  now  ready  to  compare  the  imagination  with  the  faculty  of 
the  mind  that  is  most  distinctly  opposed  to  it.  This  antithetical  fac- 
ulty is  the  understanding.  The  understanding  represents  the  mind 
in  its  analytical  activity,  as  the  imagination  represents  it  in  its  con- 
structive activity.  Practically,  analysis  is  for  the  most  part  connected 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  with  synthesis.  We  can,  however,  abstract 
it  from  all  connection  of  the  sort,  and  consider  it  purely  in  itself.  The 
understanding,  then,  gives  us  the  details  of  prose ;  the  imagination 
gives  us  the  fulness  and  unity  of  poetry.  The  understanding  thus 


Appendix  B.  149 

claims  to  give  us  the  actual ;  the  imagination  gives  us  the  ideal.  The 
understanding,  tearing  the  world  apart,  analyzing  it  into  its  ultimate 
particles,  gives  us  the  poor  fragments  that  remain  as  its  equivalent ;  the 
imagination  rests  content  with  nothing  less  than  the  rounded  beauty 
of  the  whole.  —  C.  C.  Everett :  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty,  p.  25. 

In  the  second  year  of  the  reign  of  Yalentinian  and  Valens,  on  the 
morning  of  the  twenty-first  day  of  July,  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Eoman  world  was  shaken  by  a  violent  and  destructive  earthquake. 
The  impression  was  communicated  to  the  waters ;  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  were  left  dry,  by  the  sudden  retreat  of  the  sea ; 
great  quantities  of  fish  were  caught  by  the  hand  ;  large  vessels  were 
stranded  on  the  mud  ;  and  a  curious  spectator  amused  his  eye,  or 
rather  his  fancy,  by  contemplating  the  various  appearance  of  valleys 
and  mountains,  which  had  never,  since  the  formation  of  the  globe, 
been  exposed  to  the  sun.  But  the  tide  soon  returned,  with  the  weight 
of  an  immense  and  irresistible  deluge,  which  was  severely  felt  on  the 
coasts  of  Sicily,  of  Dalmatia,  of  Greece,  and  of  Egypt :  large  boats  were 
transported,  and  lodged  on  the  roofs  of  houses,  or  at  the  distance  of 
two  miles  from  the  shore ;  the  people,  with  their  habitations,  were 
swept  away  by  the  waters  ;  and  the  city  of  Alexandria  annually  com- 
memorated the  fatal  day,  on  which  fifty  thousand  persons  had  lost 
their  lives  in  the  inundation.  This  calamity,  the  report  of  which  was 
magnified  from  one  province  to  another,  astonished  and  terrified  the 
subjects  of  Rome  ;  and  their  affrighted  imagination  enlarged  the  real 
extent  of  a  momentary  evil.  They  recollected  the  preceding  earth- 
quakes, which  had  subverted  the  cities  of  Palestine  and  Bithynia: 
they  considered  these  alarming  strokes  as  the  prelude  only  of  still 
more  dreadful  calamities,  and  their  fearful  vanity  was  disposed  to 
confound  the  symptoms  of  a  declining  empire,  and  a  sinking  world.  — 
Gibbon  :  History  of  the  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Eoman  Empire,  Vol. 
III.  pp.  1-2. 

There  is  one  mind  common  to  all  individual  men.  Every  man  is  an 
inlet  to  the  same  and  to  all  of  the  same.  He  that  is  once  admitted  to 
the  right  of  reason  is  made  a  freeman  of  the  whole  estate.  What 
Plato  has  thought,  he  may  think ;  what  a  saint  has  felt,  he  may  feel ; 
what  at  any  time  has  befallen  any  man,  he  can  understand.  Who 
hath  access  to  this  universal  mind  is  a  party  to  all  that  is  or  can  be 
done,  for  this  is  the  only  and  sovereign  agent.  — Emerson  :  Essay  on 
History. 

Oliver  Goldsmith  was  born  on  the  10th  of  November,  1728,  at  the 
hamlet  of  Pallas,  or  Pallasmore,  county  of  Longford,  in  Ireland.  He 


160  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

sprang  from  a  respectable,  but  by  no  means  a  thrifty  stock.  Some 
families  seem  to  inherit  kindliness  and  incompetency,  and  to  hand 
down  virtue  and  poverty  from  generation  to  generation.  Such  was 
the  case  with  the  Goldsmiths.  "They  were  always,"  according  to 
their  own  accounts,  "a  strange  family  ;  they  rarely  acted  like  other 
people  ;  their  hearts  were  in  the  right  place,  but  their  heads  seemed  to 
be  doing  anything  but  what  they  ought."  —  "They  were  remarkable," 
says  another  statement,  "  for  their  worth,  but  of  no  cleverness  in  the 
ways  of  the  world."  Oliver  Goldsmith  will  be  found  faithfully  to  in- 
herit the  virtues  and  weaknesses  of  his  race.  —  Irving :  Oliver  Gold- 
smith. 

Nature  and  religion  are  in  the  bonds  of  friendship  ;  excellency  and 
usefulness  are  its  great  endearments ;  society  and  neighborhood,  that 
is,  the  possibilities  and  the  circumstances  of  converse,  are  the  deter- 
minations and  actualities  of  it.  Now,  when  men  either  are  unnatural 
or  irreligious,  they  will  not  be  friends :  when  they  are  neither  excel- 
lent nor  useful,  they  are  not  worthy  to  be  friends  ;  when  they  are 
strangers  or  unknown,  they  cannot  be  friends  actually  and  practically  ; 
but  yet,  as  any  man  tiath  anything  of  the  good,  contrary  to  those  evils, 
so  he  can  have  and  must  have  his  share  of  friendship.  —  J.  Taylor : 
The  Measures  and  Offices  of  Friendship. 

They  thanked  him,  and,  entering,  were  pleased  with  the  neatness 
and  regularity  of  the  place.  The  hermit  set  flesh  and  wine  before  them, 
though  he  fed  only  upon  fruits  and  water.  His  discourse  was  cheerful 
without  levity,  and  pious  without  enthusiasm.  He  soon  gained  the 
esteem  of  his  guests,  and  the  princess  repented  of  her  hasty  censure. 
—  Johnson:  Easselas,  chap.  xxi. 

Let  every  one  be  himself,  and  not  try  to  be  some  one  else.  God, 
who  looked  on  the  world  he  had  made,  and  said  it  was  all  good,  made 
each  of  us  to  be  just  what  our  own  gifts  and  faculties  fit  us  to  be. 
Be  that  and  do  that  and  so  be  contented.  Reverence  also  each 
other's  gifts,  do  not  quarrel  with  me  because  I  am  not  you,  and  I  will 
do  the  same.  God  made  your  brother  as  well  as  yourself.  He  made 
you  perhaps  to  be  bright ;  he  made  him  slow  ;  he  made  you  prac- 
tical ;  he  made  him  speculative  ;  he  made  one  strong  and  another 
weak,  one  tough  and  another  tender  ;  but  the  same  good  God  made 
us  all.  Let  us  not  torment  each  other  because  we  are  not  all  alike, 
but  believe  that  God  knew  best  what  he  was  doing  in  making  us  so 
different.  So  will  the  best  harmony  come  out  of  seeming  discords,  the 
best  affection  out  of  difference,  the  best  life  out  of  struggle,  and  the 
best  work  will  be  done  when  each  does  his  own  work,  and  lets  every 


Appendix  B.  151 

one  else  do  and  be  what  God  made  him  for.  —  J.  F.  Clarke :  Self- 
Culture  ;  Every  Man  His  Proper  Gift,  pp.  428-429. 

There  are  two  ways  of  considering  life.  One  is  the  way  of  senti- 
ment ;  tEe  other  is  the  way  of  faith.  The  sentimental  way  is  trite 
t'li'iugh.  Saint,  sage,  sophist,  moralist  and  preacher  have  repeated, 
in  every  possible  image,  till  there  is  nothing  new  to  say,  that  life  is 
a  bubble,  a  dream,  a  delusion,  a  phantasm.  The  other  is  the  way  of 
faith  :  the  ancient  saints  felt  as  keenly  as  any  moralist  could  feel  the 
brokenness  of  its  promises  ;  they  confessed  that  they  were  strangers 
and  pilgrims  here  ;  they  said  that  here  they  had  no  continuing  city  ; 
but  they  did  not  mournfully  moralize  on  this  ;  they  said  it  cheerfully 
and  rejoiced  that  it  was  so.  They  felt  that  all  was  right ;  they  knew 
that  the  promise  itself  had  a  deeper  meaning ;  they  looked  un- 
dauntedly for  "a  city  which  hath  foundations.  .  .  ."  —  Robertson: 
Illusion  and  Delusion. 

Wordsworth  has  been  in  his  grave  for  some  thirty  years,  and 
certainly  his  lovers  and  admirers  cannot  flatter  themselves  that  this 
great  and  steady  light  of  glory  as  yet  shines  over  him.  He  is  not 
fully  recognised  at  home ;  he  is  not  recognised  at  all  abroad.  Yet 
I  firmly  believe  that  the  poetical  performance  of  Wordsworth  is,  after 
that  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton,  of  which  all  the  world  now  recognises 
the  worth,  undoubtedly  the  most  considerable  in  our  language  from 
the  Elizabethan  age  to  the  present  time.  Chaucer  is  anterior ;  and 
on  other  grounds,  too,  he  cannot  well  be  brought  into  the  comparison. 
But  taking  the  roll  of  our  chief  poetical  names,  besides  Shakespeare 
and  Milton,  from  the  age  of  Elizabeth  downwards,  and  going  through 
it, — Spenser,  Dryden,  Pope,  Gray,  Goldsmith,  Cowper,  Burns, 
Coleridge,  Scott,  Campbell,  Moore,  Byron,  Shelley,  Keats  (I  mention 
those  only  who  are  dead),  —  I  think  it  certain  that  Wordsworth's 
name  deserves  to  stand,  and  will  finally  stand,  above  them  all. 
Several  of  the  poets  named  have  gifts  and  excellences  which  Words- 
worth has  not.  But  taking  the  performance  of  each  as  a  whole,  I  say 
that  Wordsworth  seems  to  me  to  have  left  a  body  of  poetical  work 
superior  in  power,  in  interest,  in  the  qualities  which  give  enduring 
freshness,  to  that  which  any  of  the  others  has  left.  —  Matthew  Arnold  : 
Preface  to  Wordsworth"1  s  Poems. 

The  business  of  the  present  novel,  however,  lies  neither  with  priest 
or  pagan,  but  with  Mr.  Clive  Newcome,  and  his  affairs  and  his  com- 
panions at  this  period  of  his  life.  Nor,  if  the  gracious  reader  expects 
to  hear  of  cardinals  in  scarlet,  and  noble  Roman  princes  and  princesses, 
will  he  find  such  in  this  history.  The  only  noble  Roman  into  whose 


152  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

mansion  our  friend  got  admission  was  the  Prince  Polonia,  whose 
footmen  wear  the  liveries  of  the  English  Royal  family,  who  gives 
gentlemen  and  even  painters  cash  upon  good  letters  of  credit;  and 
once  or  twice  in  a  season,  opens  his  transtiberine  palace  and  treats  his 
customers  to  a  ball.  Our  friend  Clive  used  jocularly  to  say,  he  be- 
lieved there  were  no  Romans.  There  were  priests  in  pretentious 
hats ;  there  were  friars  with  shaven  crowns  ;  there  were  the  sham 
peasantry,  who  dressed  themselves  out  in  masquerade  costumes,  with 
bag-pipe  and  goat-skin,  with  crossed  leggings  and  scarlet  petticoats, 
who  let  themselves  out  to  artists  at  so  many  pauls  per  sitting  ;  but  he 
never  passed  a  Roman's  door  except  to  buy  a  cigar  or  to  purchase  a 
handkerchief.  Thither,  as  elsewhere,  we  carry  our  insular  habits  with 
us.  We  have  a  little  England  at  Paris,  a  little  England  at  Munich, 
Dresden,  everywhere.  Our  friend  is  an  Englishman  and  did  at  Rome 
as  the  English  do.  —  Thackeray  :  The  Newcomes. 

The  idea  that  poetry  is  uttered  emotion,  though  now  somewhat  in 
abeyance,  is  on  the  whole  modern.  It  was  distinctive  with  the  roman- 
tic school,  until  the  successors  of  Scott  and  Byron  allied  a  new  and 
refined  tenderness  to  beauty.  The  first  rush  had  been  that  of  splendid 
barbarians.  It  is  so  true  that  strong  natures  recognize  the  force  of 
passion,  that  even  Wordsworth,  conscious  of  great  moods,  was  led  to 
confess  that  "  poetry  is  the  spontaneous  outflow  of  powerful  feelings," 
and  saved  himself  by  adding  that  it  takes  "its  origin  from  emotion 
recollected  in  tranquillity."  Poets  do  retain  the  impressions  of  rare 
moments,  and  express  them  at  their  own  time.  But  "the  passion  of 
Wordsworth,"  under  which  title  I  have  read  an  ingenious  plea  for  it 
by  Dr.  Coan,  was  at  its  best  very  serene,  and  not  of  a  kind  to  hasten 
dangerously  his  heart-beats.  Like  Goethe,  he  regarded  human  nature 
from  without ;  furthermore,  he  studied  by  choice  a  single  class  of 
people,  whose  sensibilities  were  not  so  acute,  say  what  you  will,  as 
those  of  persons  wonted  to  varied  and  dramatic  experiences.  The 
highest  passion  of  his  song  was  inspired  by  inanimate  nature  ;  it  was 
a  tide  of  exultation  and  worship,  the  yearning  of  a  strong  spirit  to  be 
at  one  with  the  elements.  Add  to  this  his  occasional  notes  of  feeling : 
the  pathos  of  love  in  his  thought  of  Lucy  — 

But  she  is  in  her  grave,  and,  oh, 
The  difference  to  me  ! 

the  pathos  of  broken  comradeship  in  the  quatrain  — 

Like  clouds  that  rake  the  mountain-summits, 
Or  waves  that  own  no  curbing  hand, 
How  fast  has  brother  followed  brother 
From  sunshine  to  the  sunless  land  I 


Appendix  B.  153 

include  also  his  religious  and  patriotic  moods,  and  we  have  Words- 
worth's none  too  frequent  episodes  of  intense  expression.  —  Stedman  : 
"The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry,"  Century  Magazine,  October, 
1892,  p.  860. 

This  is  the  history  of  the  world,  and  all  that  is  in  it.  It  passes 
while  we  look  at  it.  Like  as  when  you  watch  the  melting  tints  of  the 
evening  sky  —  purple,  crimson,  gorgeous  gold,  a  few  pulsations  of 
quivering  light,  and  it  is  all  gone.  —  Robertson. 

The  Chinese  fought  very  bravely  in  a  great  many  instances ;  and 
they  showed  still  more  often  a  Spartan-like  resolve  not  to  survive 
defeat.  When  one  of  the  Chinese  cities  was  taken  by  Sir  Hugh 
Gough,  the  Tartar  general  went  into  his  house  as  soon  as  he  saw  that 
all  was  lost,  made  his  servants  set  fire  to  the  building,  and  calmly  sat 
in  his  chair  until  he  was  burned  to  death.  One  of  the  English  officers 
writes  of  the  same  attack,  that  it  was  impossible  to  compute  the  loss 
of  the  Chinese,  'for  when  they  found  they  could  stand  no  longer 
against  us,  they  cut  the  throats  of  their  wives  and  children,  or  drove 
them  into  wells  or  ponds,  and  then  destroyed  themselves.  In  many 
houses  there  were  from  eight  to  twelve  dead  bodies,  and  I  myself  saw 
a  dozen  women  and  children  drowning  themselves  in  a  small  pond, 
the  day  after  the  fight.' —Justin  McCarthy :  A  History  of  Our  Own 
Times,  Vol.  I.  p.  143. 

Most  of  Mr.  Kipling's  characters  possess  the  intense  reality  I  have 
spoken  of  in  connection  with  Mulvany.  We  feel  that  they  must  exist, 
though  we  are  unfamiliar  with  the  type.  They  are  not  in  the  least 
like  ordinary  story-people  who  are  introduced  to  us  bit  by  bit  with 
their  brains  dissected  and  the  pieces  carefully  labelled  for  identification. 
They  are  presented  to  us  as  people  are  introduced  in  real  life.  From 
their  friends  we  learn  something  of  their  characters,  we  perceive  what 
they  do  and  say,  and  that  is  all.  We  can  puzzle  our  brains  to  divine 
their  thoughts  and  motives  just  as  we  can  in  the  case  of  people  we 
meet  every  day  ;  but  Mr.  Kipling  rarely  tells  us  what  we  should  think  ; 
very  rarely  tries  to  analyze  the  thoughts  and  motives  of  his  people  just 
to  save  the  reader  trouble.  —  Harvard  Monthly. 

Perhaps  there  never  was  a  more  moral  man  than  Mr.  Pecksniff, 
especially  in  his  conversation  and  correspondence.  It  was  once  said 
of  him  by  a  homely  admirer,  that  he  had  a  Fortunatus'  purse  of  good 
sentiments  in  his  inside.  In  this  particular  he  was  like  the  girl  in  the 
fairy  tale,  except  that  if  they  were  not  actual  diamonds  which  fell 
from  his  lips,  they  were  the  very  brightest  paste  that  shone  prodig- 
iously. He  was  a  most  exemplary  man  ;  fuller  of  virtuous  precept 


154  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

than  a  copy  oook.  Some  people  likened  him  to  a  direction-post, 
which  is  always  telling  the  way  to  a  place,  and  never  goes  there,  but 
these  were  his  enemies,  the  shadows  cast  by  his  brightness  ;  that  was 
all.  His  very  throat  was  moral.  You  saw  a  good  deal  of  it.  You 
looked  over  a  very  low  fence  of  white  cravat  (whereof  no  man  had 
ever  beheld  the  tie,  for  he  fastened  it  behind),  and  there  it  lay,  a  valley 
between  two  jutting  heights  of  collar,  serene  and  whiskerless  before 
you.  It  seemed  to  say,  on  the  part  of  Mr.  Pecksniff,  '  There  is  no  de- 
ception, ladies  and  gentlemen,  all  is  peace,  a  holy  calm  pervades  me.' 
So  did  his  hair,  just  grizzled  with  an  iron-gray,  which  was  all  brushed 
off  his  forehead,  and  stood  bolt  upright,  or  slightly  drooped  in  kindred 
action  with  his  heavy  eyelids.  So  did  his  person,  which  was  sleek 
though  free  from  corpulency.  So  did  his  manner,  which  was  soft  and 
oily.  In  a  word,  even  his  plain  black  suit,  and  state  of  widower,  and 
dangling  double  eye-glass,  all  tended  to  the  same  purpose,  and  cried 
aloud,  '  Behold  the  moral  Pecksniff ! '  —  Dickens. 

Language,  then,  is  the  spoken  means  whereby  thought  is  communi- 
cated, and  it  is  only  that.  Language  is  not  thought,  nor  is  thought 
language  ;  nor  is  there  a  mysterious  and  indissoluble  connection  be- 
tween the  two,  as  there  is  between  soul  and  body,  so  that  the  one 
cannot  exist  and  manifest  itself  without  the  other.  There  can  hardly 
be  a  greater  arid  more  pernicious  error,  in  linguistics  or  in  metaphysics, 
than  the  doctrine  that  language  and  thought  are  identical.  It  is, 
unfortunately,  an  error  often  committed,  both  by  linguists  and  by 
metaphysicians.  "  Man  speaks  because  he  thinks  "  is  the  dictum  out 
of  which  more  than  one  scholar  has  proceeded  to  develop  his  system 
of  linguistic  philosophy.  The  assertion,  indeed,  is  not  only  true,  but 
a  truism ;  no  one  can  presume  to  claim  that  man  would  speak  if  he 
did  not  think  :  but  no  fair  logical  process  can  derive  any  momentous 
conclusions  from  so  loose  a  premise.  So  man  would  not  wear  clothes 
if  he  had  not  a  body  ;  he  would  not  build  spinning  mules  and  jennies 
if  cotton  did  not  grow  on  bushes,  or  wool  on  sheep's  backs :  yet 
the  body  is  more  than  raiment,  nor  do  cotton  bushes  and  sheep 
necessitate  wheels  and  water  power.  The  body  would  be  neither 
comfortable  nor  comely,  if  not  clad ;  cotton  and  wool  would  be  of 
little  use,  but  for  machinery  making  quick  and  cheap  their  conver- 
sion into  cloth  ;  and,  in  a  truly  analogous  way,  thought  would  be 
awkward,  feeble,  and  indistinct,  without  the  dress,  the  apparatus, 
which  is  afforded  it  in  language.  Our  denial  of  the  identity  of 
thought  with  its  expression  does  not  compel  us  to  abate  one  jot  or 
tittle  of  the  exceeding  value  of  speech  to  thought ;  it  only  puts  that 


Appendix  B.  155 

value  upon  its  proper  basis.  —  Whitney  :  Language  and  the  Study  of 
Language,  p.  405. 

It  would  be  untrue  to  say  of  Jenny  Lind  that  her  artistic  career  did 
not  fully  justify  her  fame,  for  that  career  was  quite  Napoleonic  in  its 
splendid  and  unbroken  success ;  her  conquest  of  Europe  was  no  less 
rapid  and  complete  than  that  of  the  great  world-shaker  himself.  Yet 
no  one  can  read  the  recently  published  volume  of  her  memoirs  without 
feeling  that  in  her  too  was  present  that  reserve  force  of  which  Emer- 
son speaks.  She  was  not  merely  one  of  the  greatest  operatic  artists  of 
her  age,  but  an  absolutely  unique  character  and  personality  —  a  per- 
sonality which  found  its  highest  expression,  it  is  true,  in  her  art,  but 
which  was  always  perceived,  even  by  those  who  most  appreciated  her 
art,  to  be  something  quite  independent  of  it,  and  impressed  profoundly 
even  those  to  whom  music  had  nothing  to  say. — McNeill :  "Jenny 
Lind,"  Century,  December,  1892. 

Finally,  Gentlemen,  there  was  in  the  breast  of  Washington  one 
sentiment  so  deeply  felt,  so  constantly  uppermost,  that  no  proper 
occasion  escaped  without  its  utterance.  From  the  letter  which  he 
signed  in  behalf  of  the  Convention  when  the  Constitution  was  sent 
out  to  the  people,  to  the  moment  when  he  put  his  hand)  to  that  last 
paper  in  which  he  addressed  his  countrymen,  the  Union,  —  the  Union 
was  the  great  object  of  his  thoughts.  In  that  first  letter  he  tells  them 
that,  to  him  and  his  brethren  of  the  Convention,  union  appears  to  be 
the  greatest  interest  of  every  true  American  ;  and  in  that  last  paper 
he  conjures  them  to  regard  their  unity  of  government  which  consti- 
tutes them  one  people  as  the  very  palladium  of  their  prosperity  and 
safety,  and  the  security  of  liberty  itself.  He  regarded  the  union  of 
these  States  less  as  one  of  our  blessings,  than  as  the  great  treasure- 
house  which  contained  them  all.  Here,  in  his  judgment,  was  the 
great  magazine  of  all  our  means  of  prosperity  ;  here,  as  he  thought, 
and  as  every  true  American  still  thinks,  are  deposited  all  our  animat- 
ing prospects,  all  our  solid  hopes  for  future  greatness.  He  has  taught 
us  to  maintain  this  union  not  by  seeking  to  enlarge  the  powers  of  the 
government,  on  the  one  hand,  nor  by  surrendering  them,  on  the  other  ; 
but  by  an  administration  of  them  at  once  firm  and  moderate,  pursuing 
objects  truly  national,  and  carried  on  in  a  spirit  of  justice  and  equity. 
—  Daniel  Webster  :  Works. 

Truth  of  presentation  has  an  inexplicable  charm  for  us,  and  throws 
a  halo  around  even  ignoble  objects.  A  policeman  idly  standing  at  the 
corner  of  the  street,  or  a  sow  lazily  sleeping  against  the  sun,  are  not 
in  nature  objects  to  incite  a  thrill  of  delight,  but  a  painter  may,  by 


156  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

the  cunning  of  his  art,  represent  them  so  as  to  delight  every  spectator. 
The  same  objects  represented  by  an  inferior  painter  will  move  only  a 
languid  interest  ;  by  a  still  more  inferior  painter,  they  may  be  repre- 
sented so  as  to  please  none  but  the  most  uncultivated  eye.  Each 
spectator  is  charmed  in  proportion  to  his  recognition  of  a  triumph 
over  difficulty,  which  is  measured  by  the  degree  of  verisimilitude. 
The  degrees  are  many.  In  the  lowest  the  pictured  object  is  so  remote 
from  the  reality  that  we  simply  recognize  what  the  artist  meant  to 
represent.  In  like  manner  we  recognize  in  poor  novels  and  dramas 
what  the  authors  mean  to  be  characters  rather  than  what  our  experi- 
ence of  life  suggests  as  characteristic.  —  Lewes  :  Principles  of  Success 
in  Literature,  p.  123. 

Is  there,  then,  no  remedy  ?  Are  the  decay  of  individual  energy, 
the  weakening  of  the  influence  of  superior  minds  ov.er  the  multitude, 
the  growth  of  charlatanerie,  and  the  diminished  efficacy  of  public 
opinion  as  a  restraining  power,  —  are  these  the  price  we  necessarily 
pay  for  the  benefits  of  civilization  ?  and  can  they  only  be  avoided  by 
checking  the  diffusion^  of  knowledge,  discouraging  the  spirit  of  combi- 
nation, prohibiting  the  improvements  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  repress- 
ing the  further  increase  of  wealth  and  of  production  ?  Assuredly  not. 
Those  advantages  which  civilization  cannot  give  —  which  in  its  uncor- 
rected  influence  it  has  even  a  tendency  to  destroy  —  may  yet  co-exist 
with  civilization  ;  and  it  is  only  when  joined  to  civilization  that  they 
can  produce  their  fairest  fruits.  All  that  we  are  in  danger  of  losing 
we  may  preserve,  all  that  we  have  lost  we  may  regain,  and  bring 
to  a  perfection  hitherto  unknown  ;  but  not  by  slumbering,  and  leav- 
ing things  to  themselves,  no  more  than  by  ridiculously  trying  our 
strength  against  their  irresistible  tendencies  :  only  by  establishing 
counter-tendencies,  which  may  combine  with  those  tendencies,  and 
modify  them.  —  Mill :  Dissertations  and  Discussions. 

There  is  a  deeper  fact  in  the  soul  than  compensation,  to  wit,  its  own 
nature.  The  soul  is  not  a  compensation,  but  a  life.  The  soul  is. 
Under  all  this  running  sea  of  circumstance,  whose  waters  ebb  and  flow 
with  perfect  balance,  lies  the  aboriginal  abyss  of  real  Being.  Essence, 
or  God,  is  not  a  relation  or  a  part,  but  the  whole.  Being  is  the  vast 
affirmative,  excluding  negation,  self-balanced,  and  swallowing  up  all 
relations,  parts  and  times  within  itself.  Nature,  truth,  virtue,  are  the 
influx  from  thence.  Vice  is  the  absence  or  departure  of  the  same. 
Nothing,  Falsehood,  may  indeed  stand  as  the  great  Night  or  shade  on 
which  as  a  back  ground  the  living  universe  paints  itself  forth,  but  no 
fact  is  begotten  by  it ;  it  cannot  work,  for  it  is  not.  It  cannot  work 


Appendix  B*  157 

any  good  ;  it  cannot  work  any  harm.  It  is  harm  inasmuch  as  it  is 
worse  not  to  be  than  to  be.  —  Emerson :  Essay  on  Compensation ; 
Essays,  p.  116. 

To  the  student  of  political  history,  and  to  the  English  student  above 
all  others,  the  conversion  of  the  Roman  Republic  into  a  military  em- 
pire commands  a  peculiar  interest.  Notwithstanding  many  differ- 
ences, the  English  and  the  Romans  essentially  resemble  one  another. 
The  early  Romans  possessed  the  faculty  of  self-government  beyond  any 
people  of  whom  we  have  historical  knowledge,  with  the  one  exception 
of  ourselves.  In  virtue  of  their  temporal  freedom,  they  became  the 
most  powerful  nation  in  the  known  world  ;  and  their  liberties  per- 
ished only  when  Rome  became  the  mistress  of  the  conquered  races  to 
whom  she  was  unable  or  unwilling  to  extend  her  privileges.  If 
England  was  similarly  supreme,  if  all  rival  powers  were  eclipsed  by 
her  or  laid  under  her  feet  the  Imperial  tendencies,  which  are  as 
strongly  marked  in  us  as  our  love  of  liberty,  might  lead  us  over  the 
same  course  to  the  same  end.  —  Froude  :  Ccesar  ;  A  Sketch. 

Thackeray  was  a  master  in  every  sense,  having,  as  it  were,  in  himself 
a  double  quantity  of  being.  Robust  humor  and  lofty  sentiment  alter- 
nated so  strangely  in  him,  that  sometimes  he  seemed  like  the  natural 
son  of  Rabelais,  and  at  others  he  rose  up  a  very  twin  brother  of  the 
Stratford  Seer.  There  was  nothing  in  him  amorphous  and  unconsid- 
ered.  Whatever  he  chose  to  do  was  always  perfectly  done.  There 
was  a  genuine  Thackeray  flavor  in  everything  he  was  willing  to  say  or 
to  write.  He  detected  with  unfailing  skill  the  good  or  the  vile  wher- 
ever it  existed.  He  had  an  unerring  eye,  a  firm  understanding,  and 
abounding  truth.  "  Two  of  his  great  master  powers,"  said  the  chair- 
man at  a  dinner  given  to  him  many  years  ago  in  Edinburgh,  "  are 
satire  and  sympathy."  George  Brimley  remarked,  "  That  he  could  not 
have  painted  Vanity  Fair  as  he  has,  unless  Eden  had  been  shining  in 
his  inner  eye."  He  had,  indeed,  an  awful  insight,  with  a  world  of 
solemn  tenderness  and  simplicity,  in  his  composition.  Those  who 
heard  the  same  voice  that  withered  the  memory  of  King  George  the 
Fourth  repeat  ' '  The  spacious  firmament  on  high  "  have  a  recollection 
not  easily  to  be  blotted  from  the  mind,  and  I  have  a  kind  of  pity  for 
all  who  were  born  so  recently  as  not  to  have  heard  and  understood 
Thackeray's  Lectures.  But  they  can  read  him,  and  I  beg  of  them  to 
try  and  appreciate  the  tenderer  phase  of  his  genius,  as  well  as  the  sar- 
castic one.  He  teaches  many  lessons  to  young  men,  and  here  is  one 
of  them,  which  I  quote  "  memoriter  "  from  Barry  Lyndon  :  "  Do  you 
not,  as  a  boy,  remember  waking  of  bright  summer  mornings  and  find- 


158  Paragraph  ••  Writing. 

ing  your  mother  looking  over  you?  had  not  the  gaze  of  her  tender 
eyes  stolen  into  your  senses  long  before  you  woke,  and  cast  over  your 
slumbering  spirit  a  sweet  spell  of  peace,  and  love,  and  fresh -springing 
joy  ?  "  —  J.  T.  Fields  :  Yesterdays  with  Authors. 

When  this  had  been  done  it  would  be  impossible  for  our  rulers  to 
misunderstand  the  law :  but,  unless  something  more  were  done,  it 
was  by  no  means  improbable  that  they  might  violate  it.  Unhappily 
the  Church  had  long  taught  the  nation  that  hereditary  monarchy, 
alone  among  our  institutions,  was  divine  and  unavoidable ;  that  the 
right  of  the  House  of  Commons  to  a  share  in  the  legislative  power 
was  a  right  merely  human,  but  that  the  right  of  the  king  to  the 
obedience  of  his  people  was  from  above ;  that  the  Great  Charter  was 
a  statute  which  might  be  repealed  by  those  who  had  made  it,  but  that 
the  rule  which  called  the  princes  of  the  blood-royal  to  the  throne  in 
order  of  succession  was  of  celestial  origin,  and  that  any  act  of  Parlia- 
ment inconsistent  with  that  rule  was  nullity.  —  Macaulay  :  History  of 
England. 

The  evening  of  life  has  many  compensations.  Youth  has  its  pleas- 
ures and  old  age  its  recollections.  The  evening  hours  of  life  may 
even  be  the  most  beautiful,  as  the  finest  leaves  of  the  flower  are  the 
last  to  disclose  themselves.  The  fruit  grows  while  the  flower  and 
leaves  wither,  as  the  mind  ripens  while  the  body  appears  to  decay. 
Cornaro,  at  eighty- five,  said:  "The  spirit  increases  in  perfection  as 
the  body  grows  older."  —  Samuel  Smiles :  Life  and  Labor,  p.  422. 

There  is  no  more  interesting  spectacle  than  to  see  the  effects  of  wit 
upon  different  characters  of  men  ;  than  to  observe  it  expanding  cau- 
tion, relaxing  dignity,  unfreezing  coldness,  teaching  age  and  care  and 
pain  to  smile,  extorting  reluctant  gleams  of  pleasure  from  melan- 
choly, and  charming  even  the  pangs  of  grief.  It  is  pleasant  to  see 
how  it  penetrates  through  the  coldness  and  awkwardness  of  society, 
gradually  bringing  men  nearer  together,  and  like  the  combined  force 
of  wine  and  oil,  gives  every  man  a  glad  heart  and  a  shining  counte- 
nance. Genuine  and  innocent  wit  like  this  is  surely  the  flavor  of  the 
mind  !  Man  could  direct  his  ways  by  plain  reason,  and  support  his  life 
by  tasteless  food  ;  but  God  has  given  us  wit  and  flavor  and  brightness 
and  laughter  and  perfumes  to  enliven  the  days  of  man's  pilgrimage, 
and  to  charm  his  pained  steps  over  the  burning  marl.  —  Sidney  Smith. 

Of  the  various  forms  of  government  which  have  prevailed  in  the 
world,  an  hereditary  monarch  seems  to  present  the  fairest  scope  for 
ridicule.  Is  it  possible  to  relate  without  an  indignant  smile,  that,  on 
the  father's  decease,  the  property  of  a  nation,  like  that  of  a  drove  of 


Appendix  B.  159 

oxen,  descends  to  his  infant  son,  as  yet  unknown  to  mankind  and  to 
himself  ;  and  that  the  bravest  warriors  and  the  wisest  statesmen,  relin- 
quishing their  natural  right  to  empire,  approach  the  royal  cradle  with 
bended  knees  and  protestations  of  inviolable  fidelity?  Satire  and 
declamation  may  paint  these  obvious  topics  in  the  most  dazzling 
colors,  but  our  more  serious  thoughts  will  respect  a  useful  prejudice, 
that  establishes  a  rule  of  succession,  independent  of  the  passions  of 
mankind ;  and  we  shall  cheerfully  acquiesce  in  any  expedient  which 
deprives  the  multitude  of  the  dangerous,  and  indeed  the  ideal  power,  of 
giving  themselves  a  master.  —  Gibbon  :  The  Decline  and  Fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  Vol.  I.  chap.  vii.  p.  196. 

""Rich  as  we  are  in  biography,"  said  Carlyle,  "a  well-written 
life  is  almost  as  rare  as  a  well-spent  one."  In  the  main,  Hogarth's  life 
was  well  spent,  so  any  fair-minded*  critic  must  admit.  That  his  life 
has  now  been  well  written  by  Mr.  Austin  Dobson  no  fair-minded 
critic  would  doubt  for  a  moment.  In  its  way,  Mr.  Dobson's  life  of 
Hogarth  is  as  good  as  Mr.  Dobson's  life  of  Fielding,  of  Steele,  of  Gold- 
smith ;  perhaps  it  is  even  richer  than  any  of  these  in  color  and  easier 
in  manner.  It  is  not  less  a  labor  of  love  than  the  others,  nor  is  it  less 
finely  buttressed  by  solid  knowledge.  —  Mathews :  "Two  English  Men 
of  Letters,"  Cosmopolitan,  April,  1892. 

"  You  mistake  the  matter  completely,"  rejoined  Westervelt. 

"  What,  then,  is  your  own  view  of  it  ?  "  I  asked. 

"  Her  mind  was  active,  and  various  in  its  powers,"  said  he.  "  Her 
heart  had  a  manifold  adaptation ;  her  constitution  an  infinite  buoy- 
ancy, which  (had  she  possessed  only  a  little  patience  to  await  the 
reflux  of  her  troubles)  would  have  borne  her  upward,  triumphantly, 
for  twenty  years  to  come.  Her  beauty  would  not  have  waned — or 
scarcely  so,  and  surely  not  beyond  the  reach  of  art  to  restore  it  —  in 
all  that  time.  She  had  life's  summer  all  before  her,  a  hundred  varie- 
ties of  brilliant  success.  What  an  actress  Zenobia  might  have  been  ! 
It  was  one  of  her  least  valuable  capabilities.  How  forcibly  she  might 
have  wrought  upon  the  world,  either  directly  in  her  own  person,  or 
by  her  influence  upon  some  man,  or  a  series  of  men,  of  controlling 
genius!  Every  prize  that  could  be  worth  a  woman's  having  —  and 
many  prizes  which  other  women  are  too  timid  to  desire  —  lay  within 
Zenobia's  reach." 

"  In  all  this,"  I  observed,  "there  would  be  nothing  to  satisfy  her 
heart." 

"Her  heart!"  answered  Westervelt,  contemptuously. — Haw- 
thorne :  Blithedale  Romance. 


160  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Wheresoever  the  search  after  truth  begins,  there  life  begins  ;  where- 
soever that  search  ceases,  there  life  ceases.  As  long  as  a  school  of 
art  holds  any  chain  of  natural  facts,  trying  to  discover  more  of  them 
and  express  them  better  daily,  it  may  play  hither  and  thither  as  it 
likes  on  this  side  of  the  chain  or  on  that ;  it  may  design  grotesques 
and  conventionalisms,  build  up  the  simplest  buildings,  serve  the  most 
practical  utilities,  yet  all  it  does  will  be  gloriously  designed  and  glo- 
riously done  ;  but  let  it  once  quit  hold  of  the  chain  of  natural  fact, 
cease  to  pursue  that  as  a  clew  to  its  work  ;  let  it  purpose  to  itself  any 
other  end  than  preaching  this  living  word,  and  think  first  of  showing 
its  own  skill  or  its  own  fancy,  and  from  that  hour  its  fall  is  precipi- 
tate, —  its  destruction  sure  ;  nothing  that  it  does  or  designs  will  ever 
have  life  or  loveliness  in  it  more  ;  its  hour  has  come  and  there  is  no 
work  nor  device  nor  knowledge  nor  wisdom  in  the  grave  whither  it 
goeth.  —  Ruskin  :  The  Grounds  of  Art,  p.  87,  in  Students'  Series  of 
Classics. 

I  call  it  atheism  by  establishment,  when  any  state,  as  such,  shall 
not  acknowledge  the  existence  of  God  as  a  moral  governor  of  the 
world  ;  when  it  shall  abolish  the  Christian  religion  by  a  regular  de- 
cree ;  when  it  shall  persecute  with  a  cold,  unrelenting,  steady  cruelty, 
by  every  mode  of  confiscation,  imprisonment,  exile,  and  death,  all  its 
ministers  ;  when  it  shall  generally  shut  up  or  pull  down  churches ; 
when  in  the  place  of  that  religion  of  social  benevolence,  and  of  indi- 
vidual self-denial,  in  mockery  of  all  religion,  they  institute  impious, 
blasphemous,  indecent,  theatric  rules,  in  honor  of  their  vitiated,  per- 
verted reason,  and  erect  altars  to  the  personification  of  their  own  cor- 
rupted and  bloody  republic  ;  when  schools  and  seminaries  are  founded 
at  the  public  expense  to  poison  mankind,  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, with  the  horrible  maxims  of  this  impiety ;  when,  wearied  out 
with  this  incessant  martyrdom  and  the  cries  of  a  people  hungering 
and  thirsting  for  religion,  they  permit  it  as  a  tolerated  evil  —  I  call 
this  atheism  by  establishment.  —  Burke. 

The  third  function  of  Parliament  is  what  I  may  call  —  preserving  a 
sort  of  technicality,  even  in  familiar  matters,  for  the  sake  of  distinct- 
ness—  the  teaching  function.  A  great  and  open  council  of  consider- 
able men  cannot  be  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  society  without  altering 
that  society.  It  ought  to  alter  it  for  the  better.  It  ought  to  teach  the 
nation  what  it  does  not  know.  How  far  the  House  of  Commons  can 
so  teach,  and  how  far  it  does  so  teach,  are  matters  for  subsequent  dis- 
cussion. —  Bagehot:  The  English  Constitution,  p.  201. 

Buildings  which  are  pictorially,  if  not  architecturally,  very  valuable 


Appendix  B.  161 

can  here  and  there  be  found  in  every  quarter  of  New  York.  The 
Tombs  is  one  of  them.  Jefferson  Market  is  another.  Grace  Church  is 
a  third,  when  we  stand  so  far  off  to  the  southward  that  it  seems  to 
finish  Broadway  once  and  for  all.  And  still  another,  very  different  in 
character,  is  the  Quaker  Meeting-house  on  Stuyvesant  Square,  which, 
with  its  simple  shape,  big  trees,  and  little  plot  of  well-tended  grass, 
looks  as  though  it  had  been  bodily  transported  from  some  small  Penn- 
sylvanian  town.  —  "  Picturesque  New  York,"  Century,  December,  1892. 

I  have  talked  of  the  danger  of  wit.  I  do  not  mean  by  that  to  enter 
into  commonplace  declamation  against  faculties  because  they  are 
dangerous ;  wit  is  dangerous,  eloquence  is  dangerous,  a  talent  for 
observation  is  dangerous,  everything  is  dangerous  that  has  efficacy 
and  vigor  for  its  characteristics  ;  nothing  is  safe  but  mediocrity.  The 
business  is,  in  conducting  the  understanding  well,  to  risk  something ; 
to  aim  at  uniting  things  that  are  commonly  incompatible.  The  mean- 
ing of  an  extraordinary  man  is,  that  he  is  eight  men,  not  one  man; 
that  he  has  as  much  wit  as  if  he  had  no  sense,  and  as  much  sense  as 
if  he  had  no  wit ;  that  his  conduct  is  as  judicious  as  if  he  were  the 
dullest  of  human  beings,  and  his  imagination  as  brilliant  as  if  he  were 
irretrievably  ruined.  But  when  wit  is  combined  with  sense  and  infor- 
mation ;  when  it  is  softened  by  benevolence,  and  restrained  by  strong 
principles ;  when  it  is  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  can  use  it  and 
despise  it,  who  can  be  witty  and  something  much  better  than  witty, 
who  loves  honor,  justice,  decency,  good  nature,  morality,  and  religion, 
ten  thousand  times  better  than  wit ;  wit  is  then  a  beautiful  and  de- 
lightful part  of  our  nature.  —  Sidney  Smith. 

I  expected,  upon  my  entrance,  to  find  nothing  but  lamentations 
and  various  sounds  of  misery ;  but  it  was  different.  The  prisoners 
all  seemed  employed  in  one  common  design,  that  of  forgetting  thought 
in  merriment  or  clamour.  I  was  apprised  of  the  usual  perquisite 
required  upon  these  occasions,  and  immediately  complied  with  the 
demand,  though  the  little  money  I  had  was  very  near  being  ex- 
hausted. This  was  immediately  sent  away  for  liquor  and  the  whole 
prison  was  soon  filled  with  riot,  laughter  and  profaneness.  —  Gold- 
smith :  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  chap.  xxv. 

What,  then,  are  the  proper  encouragements  of  genius  ?  I  answer, 
subsistence  and  respect ;  for  these  are  rewards  congenial  to  nature. 
Every  animal  has  an  aliment  suited  to  its  constitution.  The  heavy 
ox  seeks  nourishment  from  earth  ;  the  light  chameleon  has  been 
supposed  to  exist  on  air.  A  sparer  diet  than  even  this  satisfies  the 
man  of  true  genius,  for  he  makes  a  luxurious 

Off   TKJJ 

"UNIVERSITY 


162  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

applause.  It  is  this  alone  which  has  inspired  all  that  ever  was  truly 
great  and  noble  among  us.  It  is,  as  Cicero  finely  calls  it,  the  echo  of 
virtue.  Avarice  is  the  passion  of  inferior  natures ;  money  the  pay 
of  the  common  herd.  The  author  who  draws  his  quill  merely  to  take 
a  purse  no  more  deserves  success  than  he  who  presents  a  pistol. 

Homer  calls  words  winged  ;  and  the  epithet  is  peculiarly  appropri- 
ate to  his,  which  do  indeed  seem  to  fly,  so  rapid  and  light  is  their 
motion,  and  which  have  been  flying  ever  since  over  the  whole  peopled 
earth,  and  still  hover  and  brood  over  many  an  awakened  soul.  Latin 
marches,  Italian  struts,  French  hops,  English  walks,  German  rumbles 
along.  The  music  of  Klopstock's  hexameter  is  not  unlike  the  tune 
with  which  a  broad- wheeled  wagon  tries  to  solace  itself  when  crawling 
down  a  hill.  But  Greek  flies,  especially  in  Homer.  —  Hare. 

But  this  is  not  enough  to  say.  I  think  it  certain,  further,  that  if 
we  take  the  chief  poetical  names  of  the  Continent  since  the  death  of 
Moliere,  and,  omitting  Goethe,  confront  the  remaining  names  with 
that  of  Wordsworth,  the  result  is  the  same.  Let  us  take  Klopstock, 
Lessing,  Schiller,  Uhland,  Ruckert,  and  Heine  for  Germany  ;  Filicaia, 
Alfieri,  Manzoni,  and  Leopardi  for  Italy;  Racine,  Boileau,  Voltaire, 
Andre  Chenier,  Beranger,  Lamartine,  Musset,  M.  Victor  Hugo  (he 
has  been  so  long  celebrated  that  although  he  still  lives  I  may  be  per- 
mitted to  name  him)  for  France.  Several  of  these,  again,  have 
evidently  gifts  and  excellences  to  which  Wordsworth  can  make  no 
pretension.  But  in  real  poetical  achievement  it  seems  to  me  indubi- 
table that  to  Wordsworth,  here  again,  belongs  the  palm.  It  seems  to 
me  that  Wordsworth  has  left  behind  him  a  body  of  poetical  work  which 
wears,  and  will  wear,  better  on  the  whole  than  the  performance  of  any 
one  of  these  personages,  so  far  more  brilliant  and  celebrated,  most  of 
them,  than  the  homely  poet  of  Rydal.  Wordsworth's  performance  in 
poetry  is  on  the  whole,  in  power,  in  interest,  in  the  qualities  which 
give  enduring  freshness,  superior  to  theirs.  —  Matthew  Arnold :  Preface 
to  Wordsworth"1  s  Poems. 

The  personality  of  Rousseau  has  most  equivocal  and  repulsive  sides. 
It  has  deservedly  fared  ill  in  the  esteem  of  the  saner  and  more  rational 
of  those  who  have  judged  him,  and  there  is  none  in  the  history  of 
famous  men  and  our  spiritual  fathers  that  begat  us,  who  make  more 
constant  demands  on  the  patience  or  pity  of  those  who  study  his  life. 
Yet  in  no  other  instance  is  the  common  eagerness  to  condense  all 
predication  about  a  character  into  a  single  unqualified  proposition  so 
fatally  inadequate.  If  it  is  indispensable  that  we  should  be  forever 
describing,  naming,  classifying,  at  least  it  is  well,  in  speaking  of  such 


Appendix  B.  163 

a  nature  as  his,  to  enlarge  our  vocabulary  beyond  the  pedantic  formulas 
of  unreal  ethics,  and  to  be  as  sure  as  we  know  how  to  make  ourselves, 
that  each  of  the  sympathies  and  faculties  which  together  compose  our 
power  of  spiritual  observation,  is  in  a  condition  of  free  and  patient 
energy.  Any  less  open  and  liberal  method,  which  limits  our  senti- 
ments to  absolute  approval  or  disapproval,  and  fixes  the  standard  either 
at  the  balance  of  common  qualities  which  constitutes  mediocrity,  or  at 
the  balance  of  uncommon  qualities  which  is  divinity  as  in  a  Shake- 
speare, must  leave  in  a  cloud  of  blank  incomprehensibleness  those 
singular  spirits  who  come  from  time  to  time  to  quicken  the  germs  of 
strange  thought  and  shake  the  quietness  of  the  earth. — Morley  : 
Rousseau,  Vol.  I.  p.  5. 

The  number  of  graduates  who  go  forth  each  year  from  our  American 
colleges  must  be  nearly  five  thousand,  since  the  number  of  under- 
graduates is  about  twenty  thousand.  If  we  add  those  who  are  gradu- 
ates of  academies  —  those  who  have,  as  Mr.  Poore  generously  puts  it 
in  his  Congressional  Record,  "  received  an  academical  education  "  — 
the  number  will  be  greatly  swelled.  The  majority  of  all  these  gradu- 
ates will  be  called  upon,  at  some  time  or  other  during  their  lives,  to 
make  a  speech,  as  will  also  thousands  of  young  Americans  who  have 
never  seen  the  inside  of  college  or  academy.  Perhaps  a  few  hints  on 
speech-making  may  not  be  unavailing,  when  addressed  to  this  large 
class  by  a  man  much  older  —  one  who  has  made  so  many  speeches 
that  the  process  has  almost  ceased  to  have  terror  to  him,  whatever 
dismay  it  may  sometimes  cause  to  his  hearers.  Certainly  there  are  a 
few  suggestions  to  be  made  which  are  not  to  be  found  in  the  elocu- 
tionary manuals,  and  which  would  have  saved  the  present  writer 
much  trouble  and  some  anguish  had  any  one  thought  of  offering  them 
to  him  when  he  left  college.  —  T.  W.  Higginson  :  Hints  on  Writing 
and  Speechmaking. 

It  is  only  the  views  of  important  men  upon  important  subjects 
which  are  worth  reporting,  and  such  men  are  competent  to  express 
their  views  in  their  own  way.  The  larger  number  of  interviewers  are 
not  phonographers.  They  write  out  the  conversation  from  memory, 
and  with  the  purpose  of  filling  a  certain  space.  But  the  reports  of 
interviews  in  general  are  merely  records  of  the  most  trivial  gossip  or 
unimportant  opinion.  As  a  part  of  our  morning's  news,  for  instance, 
we  are  told  at  length  in  the  newspaper  that  a  foreign  actress  of  doubt- 
ful eminence  as  an  artist  and  character  as  a  woman  was  interviewed 
at  her  hotel  after  arriving,  and  declares  that  she  is  too  happy  to  find 
herself  in  dear  America,  which  blessed  land  it  has  been  the  hope  of 


164  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

her  life  to  see,  and  she  is  sure  that  she  is  going  to  like  everything  and 
everybody  ;  or  Mr.  Brown  having  been  nominated  to  be  light- house 
keeper,  Mr.  Jones  and  Mr.  Robinson  are  promptly  interviewed,  and 
declare  that  it  is  a  very  good  or  a  very  bad  nomination,  according  to 
their  political  views.  —  Harper's  Magazine,  74  :  319. 

Organization,  discipline,  and  order  characterize  the  new  undertak- 
ings on  the  northern  ranges.  In  a  word,  the  cattle  business  of  that 
section  is  now  and  has  from  the  beginning  been  carried  on  upon 
strictly  business  principles.  Under  such  proprietorships,  and  guided 
by  such  methods,  a  new  class  of  cow-boys  has  been  introduced  and 
developed.  Some  have  come  from  Texas,  and  have  brought  with 
them  a  knowledge  of  the  arts  of  their  calling,  but  the  number  from 
the  other  States  and  the  Territories  constitutes  a  large  majority  of  the 
whole.  Some  are  graduates  of  American  colleges,  and  others  of  col- 
legiate institutions  in  Europe.  Many  have  resorted  to  the  occupation 
of  cow-boy  temporarily  and  for  the  purpose  of  learning  the  range 
cattle  business,  with  the  view  of  eventually  engaging  in  it  on  their 
own  account,  or  in  the  interest  of  friends  desirous  of  investing  money 
in  the  enterprise.  —  Harper's  Magazine,  73  :  883. 

Very  rough  magic,  as  it  now  seems,  he  used  in  working  his  miracle, 
but  there  is  no  doubt  about  his  working  it.  One  opens  his  Christmas 
stories  in  this  later  day  —  The  Carol,  The  Chimes,  The  Haunted  Man, 
The  Cricket  on  the  Hearth,  and  all  the  rest  —  and  with  "a  heart 
high-sorrowful  and  cloyed,"  asks  himself  for  the  preternatural  virtue 
that  they  once  had.  The  pathos  appears  false  and  strained  ;  the 
humor  largely  horse-play  ;  the  characters  theatrical ;  the  joviality 
pumped  ;  the  psychology  commonplace  ;  the  sociology  alone  funny. 
It  is  a  world  of  real  clothes,  earth,  air,  water,  and  the  rest ;  the  people 
often  speak  the  language  of  life,  but  their  motives  are  as  dispropor- 
tioned  and  improbable,  and  their  passions  and  purposes  as  over- 
charged, as  those  of  the  worst  of  Balzac's  people.  Yet  all  these 
monstrosities,  as  they  now  appear,  seem  to  have  once  had  symmetry 
and  verity  ;  they  moved  the  most  cultivated  intelligences  of  the  time  ; 
they  touched  true  hearts  ;  they  made  everybody  laugh  and  cry.  - 
Harpers  Magazine,  74  :  322. 

At  fourteen  this  typical  New-Englander  left  the  common  schools  of 
Salem  with  such  learning  and  love  of  it  as  the  common  schools  seemed 
to  impart  oftener  in  that  day  than  in  ours,  and  entered  a  counting- 
room  of  the  old  town.  At  eighteen  he  went  to  sea,  and  at  twenty- 
four  he  was  the  master  of  a  vessel.  His  career  began  in  the  troubled 
times  following  the  American  Revolution,  and  it  led  him  with  varying 


Appendix  B.  165 

fortune  through  the  picturesque  and  dramatic  perils  of  the  next 
thirty  years  in  nearly  every  sea  that  washes  the  globe.  During  the 
English  wars  with  the  French  republic,  the  English  wars  with  Napo- 
leon, the  English  wars  with  ourselves,  the  Spanish  wars  with  their 
revolted  South  American  provinces,  the  French  wars  with  everybody, 
he  trafficked  in  every  port  open  to  honest  gain.  Sometimes  he  sailed 
under  one  flag,  and  sometimes  under  another  ;  now  he  was  an  Ameri- 
can citizen,  and  now  a  Danish  subject ;  he  now  carried  despatches 
for  the  French  Directory,  and  now  he  protected  himself  with  an  Eng- 
lish register.  He  turned  every  phase  of  the  shifting  politics  and  hos- 
tilities of  the  time  to  account ;  he  was  ready  for  any  opportunity  or 
any  emergency  ;  he  was  alert,  prompt,  prudent ;  but  he  kept  through 
all  a  conscience  unsullied  by  baseness  or  dishonesty.  He  kept  some- 
thing more  —  a  faith  in  human  nature  unshaken  by  wrong,  and  a 
generosity  which  the  epithet  of  knightly  would  cheapen.  On  one  side 
he  was  a  shrewd  Yankee  adventurer ;  on  the  other,  he  was  as  fine 
and  high  a  spirit  as  ever  dared  danger  in  any  cause.  —  Harper's  Mag- 
azine, 74 : 158. 

The  following  paragraphs  are  drawn  from  a  variety  of 
sources,  mostly  from  current  magazines  and  newspapers. 
The  wording  and  arrangement  are  in  some  instances  less 
careful  than  in  the  preceding  examples. 

The  patriotic  citizen  who  applies  himself  to  the  study  and  practice 
of  politics  must  have  his  worldly  competence  already  assured,  or  he 
must  starve,  or  be  tempted  to  forget  or  disregard  his  patriotism  — one 
of  the  essential  elements  of  which  is  honesty  —  and  pursue  politics  as 
a  trade,  from  which  personal  and  pecuniary  gain  is  to  be  derived.  In 
tne  first  case,  if  the  man  with  a  competence  becomes  a  politician,  it  is 
from  the  patriotic  motive,  pure  and  simple,  of  doing  good  to  his  fel- 
low-men, without  selfish  ambition  of  his  own  ;  or  he  follows  it  from  a 
desire  to  attain  station  and  place  of  power;  or  his  ultimate  motive 
may  be  a  blending  of  both  of  these.  If  he  be  the  rare  individual  who 
pursues  politics  from  the  first-mentioned  motive  and  aspires  to  noth- 
ing but  to  study  and  understand  the  institutions  of  his  country  and  to 
make  known  his  knowledge  and  the  reason  of  it  to  his  fellow-citizens, 
he  is  indeed  a  living  beneficence  ;  and  the  more  of  such  politicians  a 
country  can  possess,  the  better.  They  may  not  agree  in  respect  to 
the  ascertainment  of  their  historical  or  practical  facts  ;  they  may  widely 
diverge  in  their  conclusions  in  regard  to  the  best  policies  to  be  pursued  ; 


166  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

yet  they  are  none  the  less  the  most  valuable  part  of  a  political  commu- 
nity. If  places  of  authority  and  power  are  bestowed  upon  them  by  the 
selection  of  their  fellow-citizens  rather  than  by  their  own  solicitations, 
such  honors  become  decorations  of  greater  value  than  the  prizes  of 
Grecian  games  or  the  boss  ships  of  States. 

The  overwhelming  tendency  of  modern  life  is  toward  the  cities.  It 
almost  seems  as  if  they  would  have  to  be  walled  about  in  order  to  keep 
in  the  country  the  proportion  —  four-fifths  at  least  —  which  must  re- 
main there  in  order  to  provide  food  for  all.  Everything  done  "  to  alle- 
viate the  condition  of  the  poor  in  great  cities  ' '  works  in  the  direction 
of  bringing  more  into  them  ;  and  no  argument  or  persuasion,  or  more 
solid  consideration  of  betterment,  prevails  to  get  them  out  after  once 
immersed  in  the  pleasurable  excitement  of  gregarious  existence  ;  they 
would  rather  starve  in  a  crowd  than  grow  fat  in  quietude  —  especially 
if  the  "crowd"  is  sprinkled  with  aromatic  "charity."  Humanity, 
like  other  semifiuids,  moves  in  the  line  of  least  resistance  and  most 
propulsion.  Idleness  drifts  toward  where  commiseration  and  alms- 
giving are  most  generous  and  unquestioning ;  love  of  drink  toward 
where  beer  and  liquor  are  most  plentiful.  The  free  soup  kitchen  is  a 
profitable  neighbor  for  the  saloon.  Labor  is  a  blessing  —  in  disguise  ; 
and  a  free  gift  is  often  a  disguised  curse. 

We  are  not  among  those  who  believe  that  corruption  of  the  ballot 
is  sensibly  increasing.  Elections  are  increasing  in  expensiveness,  and 
there  is  a  legitimate  way  to  use  an  immense  amount  of  money.  Never- 
theless it  is  beyond  all  question  that  in  both  parties  there  is  employed 
by  responsible  or  irresponsible  persons,  with  or  without  the  knowl- 
edge of  candidates  to  be  benefited  thereby,  a  very  large  amount  of 
money  for  the  purchase  of  venal  voters.  The  Australian  ballot  laws 
in  so  many  of  our  States  tend  to  diminish  this  evil,  and  public  senti- 
ment also  has  its  effect.  But  it  is  not  stamped  out,  and  the  lower 
class  of  politicians  are  not  anxious  to  have  it  stamped  out.  There  is  a 
tendency  to  have  it  increased,  because  where  one  party  adopts  meth- 
ods of  corruption  the  other  party  feels  forced  to  do  the  same.  It  is 
often  easier  to  fight  fire  with  fire  than  to  fight  fire  with  water. 

What  will  be  the  state  of  affairs,  what  the  dawning  hope,  when  this 
century  shall  have  closed  ?  The  law  of  all  things  human  is  that  of  ebb 
and  flow.  History  attests  and  observation  shows  that  ideas  constantly 
react  one  against  another.  In  philosophy  it  is  from  the  asjies  of  skep- 
ticism that  spiritualism  has  always  sprung ;  a  tumult  of  ideas  politi- 


Appendix  B.  167 

cal,  social,  religious,  has  always  been  followed  by  a  period  of  consoling 
calm  and  of  fruitful  progress.  So  if  the  same  mysterious  influence  is 
still  in  force,  the  generation  to  follow  the  present  one  will  not  feel  the 
present  discouragements,  will  scorn  the  indecisions  and  the  vain  agita- 
tions of  this  twilight  period,  and  will  push  on  with  burning  ardor  to 
some  new  development  or  to  some  redevelopment.  That  of  which  we 
are  assured  is,  that  this  great  nineteenth  century  will  leave  its  suc- 
cessor, besides  the  material  and  scientific  results  which  will  survive  it, 
elements  of  force  and  of  life  holding  large  possibilities  and  capable  of 
developing  into  grander  attainments  than  any  yet  reached. 

The  crushing  defeat  of  the  Republican  party  amazes  as  much  as  it 
appals  many  Republicans.  They  could  understand  the  reverse  of 
eight  years  ago.  It  came  from  an  objectionable  candidate  for  the 
Presidency,  and  it  was  won  only  by  carrying  States  which  had  been 
doubtful  for  some  years  previously.  But  this  election  takes  in  the 
whole  northern  portion  of  the  country  in  its  revolutionary  features, 
and  is  as  all-pervading  a  verdict  against  the  Republicans  as  could  well 
have  been  rendered.  Their  voters  were  unprepared  for  such  a  result, 
and  many  of  them  honestly  fail  to  understand  it.  Yet  we  have  never 
known  a  defeat  the  causes  of  which  were  plainer  or  more  obviously 
apparent. 

The  relation  of  trades  unions  to  civilization  is  much  misunderstood, 
and  this  misunderstanding  has  resulted  in  hostility  to  the  unions. 
Unions  discipline,  train  and  educate  the  working  classes  beyond  all 
other  agencies.  They  turn  them  from  inchoate  mobs  into  drilled 
bodies.  They  are  far  better  than  armies  because  they  discuss  impor- 
tant questions,  spread  information  among  those  who  most  need  it, 
set  minds  to  thinking  that  otherwise  would  never  stir,  protect  the 
ignorant,  the  weak,  and  the  oppressed,  and  tend  to  abolish  poverty  by 
their  constant  push  for  higher  wages.  To  join  a  trades  union  always 
signifies  in  the  workman  a  willingness  to  submit  to  discipline  and 
restraint,  to  hear  questions  discussed,  to  consider  rights  and  wrongs. 
The  better  workmen  are  more  generally  unionists  than  the  inferior. 

If  a  servant  girl  applies  for  employment  in  a  family  we  demand, 
first  of  all,  a  recommendation  from  her  former  mistress.  If  a  clerk  is 
searching  for  work  he  carries  with  him,  as  the  sine  qua  non  of  suc- 
cess, certain  letters  which  vouch  for  his  honesty  and  ability.  If  a 
skilled  workman  becomes  discontented  and  throws  up  his  job  he  has 
a  right  to  ask  of  his  employer  an  indorsement,  and  armed  with  that 


168  Paragraph  -  Writing, 

he  feels  secure.  Why  should  we  not  require  of  every  immigrant  also 
his  letter  of  recommendation  ?  Why  should  we  allow  the  whole  riff- 
raff of  creation  to  come  here,  either  to  become  a  burden  on  our  chari- 
table institutions,  or  to  lower  the  wages  of  our  own  laborers  by  a 
cutthroat  competition  ?  We  have  already  had  too  much  of  that  sort 
of  thing.  If  a  foreigner  has  notified  the  nearest  United  States  consul 
of  his  intention  to  emigrate,  and  the  consul,  after  due  examination, 
has  pronounced  him  a  proper  person,  let  him  come,  by  all  means.  We 
have  room  enough  for  such  persons.  But  for  immigrants  who  have 
neither  capital  nor  skill,  who  never  earned  a  living  in  their  own  coun- 
try and  will  never  earn  one  here,  we  have  no  room  whatever.  Popu- 
lar opinion  throughout  the  country  is  running  in  this  direction  and 
Congress  will  do  well  to  take  heed. 

The  substitution  of  shells  for  solid  shot  marks  an  important  epoch 
in  naval  artillery.  The  probable  effect  of  a  shot  could  be  predeter- 
mined and  provided  for  ;  that  of  a  shell  was  unknown.  In  order  to 
produce  serious  injury  with  a  shot,  it  was  necessary  to  perforate  the 
side  of  an  enemy.  This  was  not  indispensable  with  a  shell ;  with  the 
latter,  perforation  might  be  dispensed  with,  as  penetration  to  such  a 
depth  as  would  give  efficacy  to  the  explosion  might  prove  more  destruc- 
tive to  the  hull  than  would  absolute  perforation.  With  the  shot, 
damage  was  done  to  life  and  material  in  detail ;  with  the  shell,  if 
successfully  applied,  destruction  was  threatened  to  the  entire  fabric, 
with  all  it  contained.  Naval  artillery  entered  a  new  phase  ;  the  rough 
appliances  of  the  past  would  no  longer  answer  all  demands.  The 
founder  could  not  alone  equip  the  battery  ;  the  laboratory  was  called 
into  use  and  pressed  to  provide  from  its  devices.  The  "new  arm  " 
depended  upon  the  successful  working  of  the  fuse  of  the  shell,  without 
which  it  was  but  a  hollow  substitute  for  a  solid  shot,  and  this  detail 
demanded  the  utmost  care  in  preparation.  It  was  the  perfecting  of 
this  device  which,  more  than  aught  else,  delayed  the  general  adoption 
of  the  new  artillery  for  so  long  a  time  after  its  advantages  had  been 
recognized. 

Only  those  who  know  what  the  condition  of  the  English  working 
classes  some  fifty  years  ago  really  was  can  properly  appreciate  the 
changes  which  have  been  wrought  largely  by  independent  associative 
work  in  trades  unions,  cooperative  societies,  and  friendly  societies. 
The  three  movements  have  gone  on  hand  in  hand,  and  some  day  I  trust 
the  link  between  unionists  and  cooperators  will  be  tightened.  Mr. 
Burt,  whose  opinion  is  so  widely  respected  by  his  fellow-unionists  and 


Appendix  B.  169 

all  who  care  for  English  working-men,  has  told  us  that  he  too  looks 
forward  in  hope  that  cooperative  industry  may  do  great  things  for  the 
future  of  the  industrial  class.  The  wastefulness  of  our  present  method 
of  supply  through  unnecessary  middle-men,  and  the  constant  strain  of 
relations  between  employers  and  employed,  are  two  of  the  problems 
of  to-day  which  need  the  thoughtful  consideration  of  all  earnest  men. 
The  cooperative  movement  has  attempted  to  deal  with  them,  and  in 
so  doing  may  fairly  claim  the  widest  sympathy.  If  it  has  not  alto- 
gether succeeded,  yet  the  work  it  has  accomplished  in  forty  years  has 
surpassed  the  hopes  of  those  who  were  most  sanguine  at  its  be- 
ginning. 

Truly,  this  is  an  age  of  blither,  and  I  am  not  sure  that,  of  all, 
the  most  offensive  is  not  the  Wagner  blither.  That  the  Bayreuth 
performances  have  many  good  qualities,  it  would  be  senseless  to  deny  ; 
that  Wagner  cannot  be  as  adequately  rendered  elsewhere,  it  would  be 
equally  foolish  to  pretend.  That  some  of  his  best  interpreters  are  to 
be  heard  at  Bayreuth  is  true;  but  that  their  singing  there  without 
wage  adds  to  their  merit,  when  nowhere  could  they  find  a  better 
advertisement  or  be  more  royally  feted,  is  but  the  sentimental  fancy 
of  a  fashionably  sentimental  public.  Of  all  the  Bayreuth  fallacies, 
however,  none  is  greater  than  the  belief  that  at  the  Wagner  Theatre 
the  problem  of  artistic  stage  management  has  been  most  successfully 
solved. 

Mr.  Harrison's  announcement  that  he  will  use  the  veto  power,  if 
he  is  given  a  chance,  shows  the  Republican  politicians  in  the  West 
who  have  been  demanding  free  coinage  that  they  will  simply  dig  their 
own  graves  if  they  keep  up  their  shouting.  Mr.  Harrison  is  the  head 
of  the  Republican  party.  He  declares  that  he  will  veto  a  certain  bill 
if  it  reaches  him.  The  great  majority  of  his  party  applaud  this 
announcement  of  his  purpose.  The  minority  of  the  party  can  accom- 
plish nothing  practical  in  the  way  of  legislation  by  continuing  their 
agitation.  Moreover,  they  cannot  help  their  party  in  their  own  States, 
or  their  own  standing  in  the  party,  by  keeping  up  the  cry  for  free 
coinage.  They  will  simply  array  themselves  against  the  overwhelm- 
ing sentiment  of  their  party,  and  will  get  nothing  but  abuse  in 
return.  In  short,  so  far  as  free  coinage  in  the  Republican  party  is 
concerned,  Mr.  Harrison's  deliverance  shows  that  "there  is  nothing 
in  it"  for  the  party  as  a  party,  or  for  ambitious  politicians  as  self- 
seekers  ;  and  that  is  all  that  was  necessary  to  make  them  ready  to 
drop  it. 


170  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

His  book  is  thoroughly  interesting,  and  has  a  unique  value  as  a 
contribution  to  the  history  of  American  civilization.  It  is  not  possible 
always  to  agree  with  Mr.  Clay  about  himself,  but  he  is  a  man,  and  it 
is  no  harm  that  he  should  know  it.  One  need  not  care  that  he  is  not 
aware  of  his  limitations,  that  he  speaks  with  equal  confidence  on  all 
points,  and  that  his  bold  ideas  of  art  and  literature  are  somewhat 
grotesque.  When  others,  who  knew  art  and  literature  so  very  much 
better,  were  cowering  before  that  hideous  idol  of  slavery,  he  rose  and 
dealt  it  a  deadly  blow  in  its  sanctuary,  among  worshippers  whose 
hands  were  instantly  lifted  against  his  life.  About  a  book  or  a  statue 
we  can  let  him  be  mistaken,  since  he  was  right  about  humanity. 

The  growing  dissatisfaction  in  Germany  with  the  sugar-bounty  laws 
has  at  last  led  to  their  practical  repeal.  A  law  of  May  31,  regulating 
the  inspection  of  beet-grown  sugar  and  its  domestic  taxation,  provides 
for  the  gradual  lessening  and  final  discontinuance  of  the  drawback 
and  bounty  heretofore  paid  to  exporters  of  refined  sugar.  The 
bounty  is  to  cease  altogether  at  the  end  of  five  years.  The  bounty 
laws  have  undoubtedly  extended  the  area  of  beet  culture.  The 
sugar-producers  have  also  been  benefited  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of 
the  community,  for  while  they  were  getting  their  bounty  out  of  the 
public  treasury,  the  English  were  getting  all  the  cheap  sugar.  The 
authorities  have  at  last  grown  tired  of  taxing  Germans  for  the  sake  of 
lowering  the  price  of  sugar  in  England.  The  curious  question 
remains,  how  long  it  will  be  before  the  other  Continental  countries 
that  copied  German  sugar  legislation  will  admit,  as  Germany  now 
does,  that  it  is  all  a  delusion  and  a  snare.  The  German  precedent 
was  freely  cited  by  our  own  bounty  advocates  in  the  last  Congress, 
who  have  nothing  but  contempt  for  the  example  of  "  abroad,"  except 
when  it  is  a  bad  example  and  they  want  to  follow  it.  Now  that  it 
fails  them,  they  will  doubtless  disown  all  foreign  models,  and  fall 
back  on  their  favorite  thesis  that  the  United  States  are  privileged  to 
defy  all  the  established  canons  of  taxation  and  finance. 

To  Great  Britain's  jingoism  in  Venezuela  the  United  States  is  sure 
to  oppose  the  Monroe  doctrine  sooner  or  later,  no  matter  what  party 
may  be  in  power  in  the  former  country.  This  hemisphere  is  destined 
to  be  free  from  foreign  shackles  from  the  utmost  North  to  the  remot- 
est South.  And  the  United  States  will  see  to  it  that  not  one  foot 
more  of  territory  is  appropriated  in  either  North  or  South  America  by 
any  European  power.  The  boundary  of  British  Guiana  as  it  existed 
under  treaty  cannot  be  exceeded  by  Great  Britain.  All  the  recent 


Appendix  S.  171 

encroachments  and  claims  are  illegal  and  void.  The  presence  of  a 
strong  squadron  of  United  States  war  vessels  may  not  imply  hostility, 
but  it  implies  a  maintenance  of  the  Monroe  doctrine.  The  compara- 
tively feeble  navy  of  the  United  States  is  not  the  only  obstacle  in  Eng- 
land's way  on  this  occasion.  All  the  men  and  all  the  wealth  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere,  with  slight  exception,  would  be  ready  to  resist 
Great  Britain  in  her  attempt  to  extend  her  possessions  from  her  lawful 
boundary  at  the  Essequibo  to  the  Orinoco  over  the  gold  fields  and  one- 
third  of  the  entire  territory  of  the  republic  of  Venezuela.  With  such 
a  leader  for  the  Americas  as  the  United  States,  and  with  the  United 
States  fully  determined  under  a  vigorous  administration  to  maintain 
American  rights,  the  Western  Hemisphere  will  be  safe  from  Eastern 
aggression.  If  Great  Britain  has  any  real  doubt  about  the  legal 
boundaries  here  is  an  admirable  opportunity  for  further  strengthening 
the  principle  that  all  international  disputes  between  the  New  World 
and  the  Old  are  to  be  settled  by  arbitration,  not  by  force. 

Necessary  restraints  upon  judicial  excesses  are  expressed  in  three 
generally  accepted  maxims  :  that  a  man  is  considered  innocent  until 
he  is  proven  guilty,  that  trial  must  be  public,  and  that  the  accused 
cannot  be  compelled  to  criminate  himself.  These  principles  occasion 
much  inconvenience  in  detection  and  consequent  conviction,  and  are 
often  conveniently  ignored  or  violated.  The  experience  of  the  detec- 
tive leads  him  to  assume  that  any  suspected  man  is  guilty,  and  to 
treat  him  accordingly.  It  is  therefore  common  to  use  the  power  of 
confinement  to  keep  away  legal  counsel  from  the  accused  as  long  as 
possible.  The  excuse  for  this  is  that  a  shrewd  attorney  finds  some 
way  of  setting  a  client  free  before  the  legal  process  is  well  under 
motion.  As  confession  is  more  easily  secured  in  private  than  in  pub- 
lic, the  prisoner  is  subjected  to  what  amounts  to  secret  examination. 
In  this  way  many  criminals  are  brought  to  conviction.  The  end  is 
understood  to  justify  the  means.  It  is  said  that  in  China  judges 
resort  to  torture  as  the  only  practicable  way  of  eliciting  truth.  With 
us,  also,  it  is  difficult  to  secure  the  needed  facts.  But  whether  it  is 
necessary  that  the  inferior  officers  of  the  law  should,  at  preliminary 
stages  and  in  secret,  pursue  a  course  that  contradicts  maxims  of  per- 
sonal liberty  acknowledged  in  higher  courts,  is  a  fair  subject  of 
inquiry.  When  a  young  woman  whose  parents  have  been  murdered 
is  subjected  to  repeated  examinations  for  the  purpose  of  eliciting  tes- 
timony which  may  amount  to  criminating  herself,  while  any  adviser 
is  rigidly  excluded,  we  have  something  not  wholly  unlike  the  torture 
chamber. 


172  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Although  the  heart  and  mind  of  Whittier  were  for  the  most  part 
absorbed  in  the  agitation  against  slavery,  some  of  the  strongest  proofs 
of  his  purely  artistic  faculty  were  exhibited  before  the  close  of  the 
civil  war ;  among  these  may  be  named  such  ballads  as  Maud  Mul- 
ler,  Skipper  Ireson,  and  The  Pipes  at  Lucknow.  It  is,  nevertheless, 
true  that  the  national  as  distinguished  from  the  sectional  awakening 
to  the  charm  of  Whittier 's  verse  dates  from  the  publication  in  1866-7 
of  Snow  Sound  and  The  Tent  on  the  Beach.  In  these  compositions 
it  is  evident  that  his  aspirations  and  endeavors  are  tending  to  turn 
away  from  a  homiletical  or  didactic  purpose  to  the  embodiment  of 
aesthetic  beauty.  But,  although  he  no  longer  weakened  the  artistic 
effect  of  a  composition  by  tacking  to  it  a  moral,  it  must  not  be  in- 
ferred that  Whittier  was  ever  a  conscious  advocate  of  art  for  art. 
His  whole  nature  was  steeped  in  a  sense  of  duty  and  responsibility, 
and  it  is  doubtful  if  he  could  even  comprehend  beauty  divorced 
from  goodness.  His  conception  of  the  poet  was  rather  that  of  the 
vates,  or  bard,  who  elevates,  than  that  of  the  pceta,  or  maker,  whose 
exclusive  purpose  is  tp  please.  In  his  view  the  possession  of  artistic 
powers  implied  a  divine  commission  to  lift,  invigorate  and  purify 
mankind.  —  New  York  Sun. . 


APPENDIX   C. 

1. 
(a)    TEN-MINUTE  THEMES  IN  EXPOSITION  AND  ARGUMENT. 

The  exercises  provided  in  Appendix  A  12  demand 
deeper  subjects  of  a  character  requiring  time  for  prepara- 
tion and  reading  on  the  part  of  the  student.  As  a  correc- 
tive for  the  bookishness  that  will  often  appear  in  the 
paragraphs  written  outside  the  class,  it  will  be  well  for  the 
student  to  write  frequently,  in  the  class-room,  paragraphs 
on  simple  familiar  subjects.  The  time  for  writing  should 
be  limited  to  ten  or  fifteen  minutes,  at  the  expiration  of 
which,  members  of  the  class  should  be  called  upon,  at 
random,  to  read  what  they  have  written,  the  class  and 


Appendix   C  1.  173 

instructor  joining  in  the  criticism.  This  exercise  may  be 
continued  advantageously  throughout  the  course.  Constant 
practice  in  writing  under  pressure  produces  rapidity,  facil- 
ity, naturalness,  and  individuality  of  expression.  At  first 
it  will  be  well  to  allow  each  student  to  select  his  own  sub- 
ject and  to  determine  what  he  will  say  about  it,  before 
coining  to  the  class.  Later,  the  exercise  should  be  wholly 
impromptu.  Subjects  of  immediate  local  interest  about 
which  the  student  community  is  talking  and  thinking  at 
the  time  are  especially  valuable  for  this  impromptu  work. 
Subjects  which  have  come  up  during  the  week  in  the  his- 
tory and  literature  classes  may  also  be  utilized  in  this  work. 
The  following  are  printed  merely  to  show  the  range  and 
character  of  subjects  that  may  be  employed  in  this  connec- 
tion. They  are  necessarily  general  in  character,  whereas 
the  actual  subjects  given  should  be  specific.  The  instructor 
will  be  able  to  supplement  this  list  with  other  subjects  of 
more  immediate  interest  and  better  adapted  to  the  grade 
and  attainments  of  his  class.  A  choice  of  subjects  should, 
if  possible,  be  offered  at  all  times. 

1.  Why  do  many  dislike  the  study  of  rhetoric  ? 

2.  Advantages  of  literary  societies. 

3.  Proper  observance  of  Sunday  by  students. 

4.  Manners  in  the  class-room. 

5.  Advantages  of  the  work  in  manual  training. 

6.  What  does  the  school  most  need  ?     Reasons. 

7.  How  may  a  student  best  divide  his  time  ? 

8.  Some  of  the  uses  of  writing  frequently. 

9.  Why  we  lost  the  last  ball-game. 

10.  Why  I  like  or  dislike  the  last  book  I  read. 

11.  A  defense  of  Shylock. 

12.  Arguments  against  long  examinations. 

NOTE.  —  Other  subjects  for  ten-minute  themes  may  be  found  under  '  Practice  in 
Outlining  Themes '  (p.  175),  the  main  headings  of  the  outlines  made  by  the  class  being 
used  for  titles. 


1 74  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

(b)    OTHER  SOURCES  OF  THEMES. 

The  work  which  the  class  may  be  doing  in  other  branches 
of  study  will  frequently  suggest  numerous  themes  for  im- 
promptus. Thus,  if  the  composition  class  is  also  working 
in  English  history,  themes  like  the  following  may  occasion- 
ally be  given  :  — 

1.  Life  of  our  ancestors  in  Germany. 

2.  How  our  ancestors  punished  crime. 

3.  Eoman  influences  in  England. 

4.  A  description  of  the  Conqueror's  reforms. 

5.  Wat  Tyler's  Kebellion. 

6.  The  scene  at  Eunnymede. 

7.  The  work  of  the  Star-chamber. 

8.  The  story  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots. 

9.  Jack  Cade's  Kebellion. 

10.  Story  of  Thomas  a  Becket. 

11.  Eichard  and  the  princes. 

12.  The  Eoyal  Oak. 

13.  The  Spanish  Armada. 

Thus,  too,  if  the  composition  class  is  also  doing  work  in 
reading  and  studying  English  authors  or  American  authors, 
themes  in  abundance  may  be  chosen  in  the  direct  line  of 
their  work.  To  illustrate,  a  class  studying  Longfellow,  and 
reading  some  of  his  poems,  might  properly  be  given  themes 
like  the  following  :  — 

1.  Longfellow  at  Bowdoin  and  at  Harvard. 

2.  The  great  sorrow  of  Longfellow's  life. 

3.  How  Edgar  A.  Poe  regarded  Longfellow. 

4.  A  description  of  Longfellow's  home. 

5.  The  story  of  the  children's  armchair. 

6.  Longfellow's  friends. 

7.  The  main  points  of  Morituri  Salutamus. 


Appendix  O  1.  175 

8.  Longfellow's  travels. 

9.  The  story  of  Evangeline. 

10.  The  story  of  Miles  Standish. 

11.  The  story  of  one  of  the  Tales  of  a  Wayside  Inn. 

12.  Longfellow's  ideas  of  slavery. 

13.  A  scene  from  Hiawatha. 


(c)    PRACTICE  IN  OUTLINING  THEMES. 

Set  down  in  brief  the  points  you  would  mention  if  writing 
on  the  following  topics.  Re-arrange  the  points  under  a 
few  main  heads,  distinguishing  principal  from  subordinate 
points.  Account  for  the  order  in  which  you  have  re-ar- 
ranged the  points. 

Descriptions. 

1.  Abridge.  2.  The  human  hand.  3.  A  landscape.  4.  A 
ball-game.  5.  A  portrait.  6.  A  room.  7.  A  face.  8.  A 
statue.  9.  A  flower.  10.  A  church.  11.  A  foot-race. 
12.  A  city.  13.  A  busy  street.  14.  A  building.  15.  A 
riot.  16.  A  field  of  corn.  17.  A  skating  scene.  18.  A  fire. 
19.  A  workshop.  20.  A  country  village.  21.  A  flour  mill. 
22.  A  gypsy  woman.  23.  A  book  agent.  24.  A  wanderer. 
25.  A  lawyer's  office. 

Narratives. 

1.  An  eventful  day.  2.  A  horseback  ride.  3.  Learning 
to  swim.  4.  Sitting  for  a  picture.  5.  Earliest  recollec- 
tions. 6.  A  beggar's  story.  7.  Story  of  the  Prisoner  of 
Chillon.  8.  Story  of  Burns's  life.  9.  A  visit  to  Bunker 
Hill  Monument.  10.  Story  of  Goldsmith's  life.  11.  Story 
of  Kasselas,  Prince  of  Abyssinia.  12.  Early  life  of  John 
Milton.  13.  Story  of  Joan,  of  Arc.  14.  The  Regicides. 
15.  The  Charter  Oak.  16.  Paul  Eevere's  ride.  17.  The 


176  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Fountain  of  Youth.     18.  The  Man  in  the  Moon.     19.  Story 
of  the  experiences  of  a  school-desk.     20.  A  lost  letter. 


Exposition. 
(By  Partition  and  Division.) 

1.  Clouds.  2.  Winds.  3.  Forms  of  government.  4.  Fine 
arts.  5.  Educational  systems.  6.  Theories  of  the  origin  of 
language.  7.  Theories  of  electricity.  8.  Duties.  9.  Eights. 
10.  The  human  eye.  11.  A  steam-engine.  12.  A  state. 
=3.  The  federal  government.  14.  Useful  books.  15.  The 
electric  telegraph.  16.  Law.  17.  Politeness.  18.  Herbert 
Spencer's  literary  work.  19.  Duties  of  a  citizen.  20.  Plans 
for  private  reading.  21.  The  great  religions.  22.  Habits 
of  ants.  23.  Habits  of  climbing  plants.  24.  Orders  of 
architecture.  25.  Classes  of  literature. 

Exposition. 
(By  Examples.) 

1.  Power  of  inherited  tendencies.  2.  Persecution  favor- 
able to  a  cause.  3.  Intelligence  in  dogs.  4.  Power  of  early 
training  in  literary  men.  5.  Literature  as  an  aid  to  social 
reforms.  6.  The  prodigality  of  Nature.  7.  Caprices  of 
fashion.  8.  Moral  heroism.  9.  Follies  of  our  ancestors. 
10.  Intolerance  in  colonial  New  England.  11.  Intelligence 
in  ants.  12.  Convenience  of  slang.  13.  Statesmanship  in 
recent  Congresses. 

Exposition. 

(By  Comparison  and  Contrast.) 

« 

1.  Longfellow  and  Tennyson.  2.  The  two  Locksley 
Halls.  3.  History  and  biography.  4.  The  drama  and  the 
novel.  5.  Mechanical  and  artistic  invention.  6.  Pauperism 


Appendix   (71.  177 

and  poverty.  7.  Talent  and  genius.  8.  The  British  Parlia- 
ment and  the  Congress  of  the  United  States.  9.  Dickens 
and  Thackeray.  10.  The  Hebrew  patriarch  and  the  Scottish 
chief.  11.  Caesar  and  Alexander.  12.  Shakespeare's  Rich- 
ard III.  and  the  Richard  III.  of  history.  13.  Shakespeare's 
Brutus  and  the  Brutus  of  history.  14.  German  and  Italian 
music.  15.  A  Roman  home  and  an  American  home.  16.  A 
Roman  boy's  sports  and  an  American  boy's  sports.  17.  A 
Roman  boy's  schooling  and  an  American  boy's  schooling. 
18.  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  19.  Napo- 
leon and  Wellington.  20.  Grant  and  Lee.  21.  Socialism 
and  individualism.  22.  A  Stoic  and  a  Christian.  23.  Web- 
ster and  Calhoun.  24.  Jefferson  and  Jackson.  25.  Wash- 
ington and  Lincoln. 

Exposition. 
(Popular.) 

1.  The  uses  of  science  studies.  2.  Prospects  of  civil  ser- 
vice reform.  3.  Results,  to  science,  of  Arctic  explorations. 
4.  The  principles  of  the  Whig  party.  5.  The  revival  of 
Know-nothingism.  6.  Benefits  of  foreign  immigration. 
7.  Influence  of  the  theater.  8.  The  University  Extension 
movement.  9.  The  work  of  Chautauqua.  10.  Value  of 
African  explorations.  11.  Significance  of  the  People's 
party  movement.  12.  Advantages  of  the  World's  Colum- 
bian Exposition.  13.  Was  the  purchase  of  Alaska  wise  ? 
14.  Training  afforded  by  historical  study.  15.  Modern  farm- 
ing. 16.  Influence  of  Thomas  Carlyle.  17.  Reasons  for  the 
success  of  the  American  Revolution.  18.  Causes  of  the  Civil 
War.  19.  Influence\pf  James  Russell  Lowell.  20.  The  mis- 
takes of  strikes.  21?  Education  value  of  popular  lectures. 
22.  How  to  take  notes.  23.  The  meaning  of  the  Ancient 
Mariner.  24.  The  problem  of  Elsie  Venner.  25.  Dickens 
as  a  reformer  of  schools.  26.  The  character  of  the  English- 


178  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

speaking  people.  27.  Advantages  of  the  Australian  ballot 
system.  28.  Power  of  Tammany.  29.  Causes  of  the 
French  Ee volution.  30.  How  to  read  periodicals.  31.  How 
to  read  by  topics  and  indexes.  32.  The  prevailing  thought 
of  Shakespeare's  Tempest.  33.  The  meaning  of  reciprocity. 


Argument. 

1.  Military  schools  should  be  encouraged.  2.  Thackeray 
had  no  sympathy  for  the  poor.  3.  A  large  standing  army 
is  desirable  in  this  country.  4.  Our  sea-coast  defenses 
should  be  increased.  5.  The  assassination  of  Julius  Caesar 
was  justifiable.  6.  Intercollegiate  athletic  contests  should 
be  abolished.  7.  The  execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
was  justifiable.  8.  There  should  be  an  educational  qualifi- 
cation for  voting.  9.  Church  property  should  be  taxed  like 
other  property.  10.  The  Governor  of  Ohio  should  have  the 
veto  power.  11.  The  treatment  of  Koger  Williams  was  un- 
justifiable. 12.  Mohammedanism  has  been  a  benefit  to  the 
world.  13.  Foreign  missions  are  not  so  important  as  home 
missions.  14.  The  Sandwich  Islands  should  be  annexed  to 
the  United  States.  15.  Grant's  administration  was  a  fail- 
ure. 16.  The  civil  service  reform  law  should  be  extended 
to  apply  to  more  classes  of  officials.  17.  The  Indian  has 
not  been  treated  justly.  18.  Protection  by  bounties  is 
cheaper  than  protection  by  tariff.  19.  The  war  of  the 
United  States  against  Mexico  was  unjustifiable.  20.  Eng- 
land's occupation  of  Egypt  is  right.  21.  Strikes  are  inex- 
pedient. 22.  English  is  likely  to  become  the  language  of 
the  world.  23.  Capital  punishment  for  murder  is  justifi- 
able. 24.  Party  spirit  is  beneficial.  25.  Prohibition  is 
rightfully  made  a  national  issue.  26.  Trusts  and  trade 
combinations  are  an  evil.  27.  Education  should  be  compul- 
sory. 28.  Fortunes  should  be  limited  by  law. 


Appendix  O  2.  179 

2. 
TEN-MINUTE  THEMES  IN  NARRATION  AND  DESCRIPTION. 

Subjects  for  ten-minute  impromptus  in  narration  and 
description  are  found  in  abundance.  The  writing  of  such 
paragraphs  constitutes  the  greater  part  of  the  work  of  news- 
paper men,  and,  indeed,  of  almost  all  writing,  and  a  large 
amount  of  such  practice  should  be  given.  The  list  ap- 
pended will  suggest  the  class  of  subjects  suitable  for  this 
work.  Others  of  more  local  interest  should  be  provided. 

1.  A  description  of  a  sleigh-ride. 

2.  A  report  of  the  last  lecture  I  heard. 

3.  How  I  spent  the  holidays. 

4.  The  coasting  party. 

5.  A  description  of  the  ball-game. 

6.  Antics  of  a  fountain-pen. 

7.  The  new  building. 

8.  Views  from  my  window. 

9.  The  room  in  which  we  recite. 

10.  The  reading-room. 

11.  A  day  camping. 

12.  My  experience  at  fishing. 

13.  A  personal  adventure. 

14.  Loss  of  a  trunk. 

15.  A  visit  to  an  art-gallery. 

16.  A  visit  to  a  machine-shop. 

17.  Below  the  falls  at  Niagara. 

18.  A  report  of  the  last  concert. 

19.  An  historical  incident. 

20.  A  story  from  General  Grant's  life. 

21.  A  letter  describing  my  school-life. 

22.  A  report  of  last  Sunday's  sermon. 

NOTE. — Other  subjects  for  ten-minute  themes  may  be  found  under  'Practice  in 
Outlining  Themes,'  (j>.  175),  the  main  headings  of  the  outlines  made  by  the  class  beint; 
used  for  titles. 


180  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

3. 

(a)    REPRODUCTIONS. 
(Class-room  work.) 

It  is  advisable,  in  beginning  this  work,  for  the  instructor, 
after  having  read  the  selection,  to  develop  with  the  class 
an  orderly  outline  of  topics  to  be  followed  by  all.  This 
will  be  found  advantageous  until  the  habit  of  detecting  the 
principal  points  of  a  selection,  has  been  formed,  when  each 
student  may  be  left  to  make  his  own  selection  of  topics. 
The  following  directions  will  be  helpful  to  the  student  in 
making  his  outline :  (1)  Select  but  few  general  topics  and 
those  the  main  ideas  of  the  piece  read,  (2)  Express  each 
topic  briefly  and  clearly,  (3)  Do  not  repeat  the  same  idea 
in  two  or  more  places,  (4)  See  that  none  of  the  main  points 
are  omitted,  (5)  Ee-arrange  the  topics  selected,  so  that 
the  order  will  be  natural. 

The  following  contain  selections  or  are  themselves  of 
suitable  length  for  reading  by  the  instructor,  outlining,  and 
reproduction  by  the  class  within  the  limits  of  a  recitation 
hour : — 

1.  Selections  from  Irving's  Sketch  Book. 

2.  Anderson's  Historical  Reader. 

3.  Swinton's  Studies  in  English  Literature. 

4.  Keadings  from  English  History  by  J.  R.  Green. 

5.  The  Student's  Eeader,  by  Eichard  Edwards. 

6.  Hawthorne's  Wonder  Book  and  Tanglewood  Tales. 

7.  Hawthorne's  Twice  Told  Tales. 

8.  Garnett's  English  Prose  from  Elizabeth  to  Victoria. 

9.  Genung's  Rhetorical  Analysis. 

10.  Cathcart's  Literary  Eeader. 

11.  Andrew  Lang's  Letters  to  Dead  Authors. 

12.  Hamerton's  Intellectual  Life. 

13.  Parton's  Life  of  Jackson. 


Appendix   C  3.  181 

14.  Dickens's  Pickwick  Papers,  —  short  stories  in  Vol.  I. 
chaps.  3,  6,  11,  13,  14,  portraits  in  chaps.  15,  17,  21,  25, 
others  in  Vol.  II. 

15.  Irving's  Tales  of  the  Alhambra. 

16.  Addison's  Vision  of  Mirza. 

17.  Burroughs's  Birds  and  Bees. 

18.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address. 

19.  Lowell's  Vision  of  Sir  Launfal. 

20.  Lowell's  The  Singing  Leaves. 

21.  Matthew  Arnold's  The  Forsaken  Merman. 

22.  Whittier's  Skipper  Ireson's  Eide. 

23.  Bryant's  Ode  to  a  Waterfowl. 

24.  Holmes's  Chambered  Nautilus. 

25.  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

26.  Burns's  John  Barleycorn. 

27.  Longfellow's  Bell  of  Atri. 

28.  Leigh  Hunt's  Abou  Ben  Adhem. 

29.  Whittier's  Voices  of  Freedom. 

30.  Whittier's  Pipes  at  Lucknow. 

31.  Whittier's  Ballads. 

32.  Longfellow's  Shorter  Poems. 

33.  The  Humbler  Poets. 

34.  Proctor's  Half-hours  with  the  Stars. 

35.  Lamb's  Tales  from  Shakespeare. 

36.  Scudder's  Book  of  Folk  Stories. 

37.  Lanier's  The  Boy's  King  Arthur. 

38.  Lanier's  The  Boy's  Percy. 

39.  Knox's  Boy  Travelers. 

40.  Burke's  Speeches. 

41.  Studies  from  Euripides.     (Morley's  Univ.  Libr.) 

42.  Hawthorne's  Grandfather's  Chair. 

43.  Thompson's  Green  Mountain  Boys. 

44.  Gray's  How  Plants  Behave. 

45.  Lander's  Imaginary  Conversations. 

46.  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 


182  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

47.  Macaulay's  Lays  of  Ancient  Eome. 

48.  Tennyson's  Sir  Galahad. 

49.  Whittier's  Tent  on  the  Beach  and  Snow  Bound. 

50.  Scott's  Tales  of  a  Grandfather. 

51.  Church's  Story  of  the  Iliad. 

52.  Church's  Story  of  the  ^neid. 

53.  Hanson's  Stories  from  Vergil. 

54.  Church's  Stories  from  Homer. 

55.  Winchell's  Sketches  of  Creation. 

56.  Church's  Roman  Life  in  the  Days  of  Cicero. 

57.  Bret  Harte's  Luck  of  Eoarin'  Camp. 

58.  Selections  from  Plutarch's  Lives. 

59.  Selections  from  Pepys's  Diary. 

60.  Headley's  Napoleon  and  His  Marshals. 

61.  Thackeray's  Roundabout  Papers. 

62.  Gayley's  Classic  Myths  in  English  Literature. 


(6)    PARAPHRASES  AND  ABSTRACTS. 

(Outside  work.) 

The  following  list  is  made  up  of  books,  containing  chap- 
ters especially  adapted  to  this  work,  and  of  articles,  or 
essays,  in  which  the  plan  of  construction  is  prominent  and 
admirable.  The  selections  are  too  long  for  reading  in  class 
and  are  intended  for  special  assignment  as  outside  work,  a 
written  paraphrase,  abstract,  or  outline  to  be  presented  in 
class  by  the  student. 

1.  Parsons.     The  Saloon  in  Society.     Atlan.,  59  :  86. 

2.  Cable.     The  Freedman's  Case  in  Equity.     Century, 
7  : 409. 

3.  Cable.     The  Silent  South.     Century,  8  :  674. 

4.  Landor.     Steele  and  Addison.     Works,  Vol.  5. 

5.  De  Foe.     The  Fire  of  London. 

6.  Johnson.     Life  of  Addison. 


Appendix   O  3.  183 

7.  Macaulay.     Essay  on  History. 

8.  Quincy.     Invasion  of  Canada.     Speeches,  p.  355. 

9.  Suniner.    Are  We  a  Nation?     Works,  12  :  191. 

10.  Sumner.     No  Property  in  Man.     Works,  8  :  359. 

11.  Sumner.     Duties  of  Massachusetts.     Works,  3  : 121. 

12.  Everett.     American  Literature.     Orations,  1. 

13.  Webster.     The  Constitution  not  a  Compact.  Works,  3. 

14.  Lowell.     The  Independent  in  Politics.     Essays,  295. 

15.  Walker.     Socialism.     Scribner  (N.  S.),  1 : 107. 

16.  Lowell.     Democracy,     p.  3-42. 

17.  Macaulay.     On  the  Athenian  Orators. 

18.  Short.     Claims  to  the  Discovery  of  America.    Galaxy, 
20  :  50. 

19.  Fiske.     The  Federal  Union.     Harper,  70  :  407. 

20.  Higginson.     The  Era    of    Good    Feeling.      Harper, 
68  :  936. 

21.  Kingsley.     The  Fount  of   Science.     Nat'l  Sermons, 
108-133. 

22.  Geo.  Eliot.     Address  to  Working  Men.     Essays,  322. 

23.  Whately.     Historic  Doubts   Relative   to    Napoleon, 
p.  11-85. 

24.  Dawes.     An  Unknown  Nation.     Harper,  76  :  598. 

25.  Warner.     Comments  on  Canada.     Harper,  78  :  520. 

26.  Sill.     Should  a  College  Educate?     Atlan.,  56  :  207. 

27.  White.     On  Reading  Shakespeare.     Galaxy,  22  :  518, 

28.  House.     The  Thraldom  of  Japan.     Atlan.,  60  :  721. 

29.  Mulford.      The    Object    of    a    University.      Atlan., 
58  :  747. 

30.  Powell.     The  Failure  of  Protection.     Eraser,  104 :  99. 

31.  Froude.     The  Book  of  Job.     Short  Studies,  1 :  228. 

32.  Howell.     Strikes.     Eraser,  101 : 118. 

33.  Black.     The  Electoral  Conspiracy.    No.  Am.,  125  : 1. 

34.  White.     Popular  Pie.     Galaxy,  18  :  532. 

35.  White.     Americanisms.     Galaxy,  24  :  376. 

36.  Gladstone.     Kin  beyond  Sea.     Gleanings,  1 :  203. 


184  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

37.  Gladstone.      Aggressions    on    Egypt.      Gleanings, 
4:341. 

38.  Gladstone.     Work  of  Universities.     Gleanings,  7  : 1. 

39.  Gladstone.     Wedgwood.     Gleanings,  2  : 181. 

40.  Froude.     England's  War.     Short  Studies,  2  :  382. 

41.  Froude.     Party  Politics.     Short  Studies,  3  :  309. 

42.  Freeman.      George   Washington.      Greater   Greece, 
etc.,  62. 

43.  Green.     ^Eneas.     Studies,  etc.,  227. 

44.  Welles.     History  of  Emancipation.     Galaxy,  14 : 838. 

45.  Coan.     The  Value  of  Life.     Galaxy,  15  :  751. 

46.  Spencer.     Philosophy  of  Style.     Essays,  9. 

47.  Sumner.     Politics  in  America.     No.  Am.,  122  :  47. 

48.  Roosevelt.     Kecent  Criticism  of  America.     Murray's 
Mag.,  4 : 289. 

49.  Arnold.     General  Grant.     Murray's  Mag.,  1  : 130. 

50.  Allen.   Landowning  and  Copyright.    Eraser,  102  :  343. 

51.  Howell.     Trades  Unions.     Eraser,  99  :  22. 

52.  Arnold.     Introduction  to  Wordsworth's  Poems. 

53.  Arnold.     Literature  and  Dogma. 

54.  Arnold.     Introduction  to  Johnson's  Chief  Lives. 

55.  Arnold.     Introduction  to  Ward's  English  Poets. 

56.  Taine.     Introduction  to  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture. 

57.  De  Quincey.    Essay  on  English  Language.    Works,  3. 

58.  Eiske.     Manifest  Destiny.     Essays. 

59.  Tyndall.     Scientific  Use  of  the  Imagination. 

60.  Bagehot.     Physics  and  Politics. 

61.  Bagehot.      The    English    Constitution    and    Other 
Essays. 

62.  Leckey.     History  of  Eationalism. 

63.  Mill.     Dissertations  and  Discussions. 

64.  Fiske.    Darwinism  and  Other  Essays. 

65.  Pater.   Appreciations. 


Appendix  D  1.  185 

APPENDIX  D. 

1. 

INTRODUCTORY  AND  CONCLUDING  PARAGRAPHS. 
An  Introduction  of  Purpose. 

The  design  of  this  supplemental  chapter  is  to  exhibit  some  of  the 
evidences  on  which  the  foregoing  points  are  taken.  —  Stedman  :  Vic- 
torian Poets,  p.  203.  [The  paragraph  continues  at  some  length, 
showing  the  interest  of  the  subject  for  students  of  minstrelsy.] 

An  Introduction  giving  the    Writer's  Point  of  View. 

Life  is  not  only  "stranger  than  fiction,"  but  frequently  also  more 
tragical  than  any  tragedy  ever  conceived  by  the  most  fervid  imagina- 
tion. Often  in  these  tragedies  of  life  there  is  not  one  drop  of  blood  to 
make  us  shudder,  nor  a  single  event  to  compel  the  tears  into  the  eye. 
A  man  endowed  with  an  intellect  far  above  the  average,  impelled  by  a 
high-soaring  ambition,  untainted  by  any  petty  or  ignoble  passion,  and 
guided  by  a  character  of  sterling  firmness  and  more  than  common 
purity,  yet,  with  fatal  illusion,  devoting  all  his  mental  powers,  all  his 
moral  energy  and  the  whole  force  of  his  iron  will  to  the  service  of  a 
doomed  and  unholy  cause,  and  at  last  sinking  into  the  grave  in  the 
very  moment  when,  under  the  weight  of  the  top-stone,  the  towering 
pillars  of  the  temple  of  his  impure  idol  are  rent  to  their  very  base,  — 
can  anything  more  tragical  be  conceived  ? 

That  is,  in  a  few  lines,  the  story  of  the  life  of  John  C.  Calhoun.  — 
Von  Hoist:  John  C.  Calhoun,  p.  1. 

A  Conclusion  adding  a  Thought. 

Whatever  may  be  the  fate  of  this  plan  for  a  national  federation  of 
women,  [The  essay  has  advocated  this  plan.]  one  thing  is  certain. 
Women  have  learned  the  omnipotence  and  happiness  of  cooperative 
work,  and  the  weakness  and  weariness  of  that  which  is  isolated.  And 
this  is  sure  to  make  them  more  fruitful  of  accomplishment  hereafter, 
whether  their  plans  of  work  shall  include  themselves,  their  homes  and 


186  Paragrap h  -  Writing . 

their  children,  society  or  the  nation.  —  Mary  A.  Livermore,  in  North 
American  Review,  September,  1891. 

A  Summarizing  Conclusion. 

Meanwhile  let  practical  America  recognize  the  truth  that  war  is  a 
calamity  that  may  overtake  the  most  peaceful  nation  and  thatr insurance 
against  war  by  preparation  for  it,  is,  of  all  methods  the  most  business- 
like, the  most  humane,  and  the  most  in  accordance  with  the  teachings 
of  the  Christian  religion.  [Points  that  were  argued  in  the  essay.]  — 
S.  B.  Luce,  in  North  American  Review,  December,  1891. 

A  Partial  Conclusion  repeating  the  Theme  which  was  proposed 

at  the  Beginning. 

On  the  whole,  then,  as  I  said  at  the  beginning,  not  only  is  Words- 
worth eminent  by  reason  of  the  goodness  of  his  best  work,  but  he  is 
eminent  also  by  reason  of  the  great  body  of  good  work  which  he  has 
left  to  us.  With  the  ancients  I  will  not  compare  him.  In  many 
respects  the  ancients  are  far  above  us,  and  yet  there  is  something 
that  we  demand  which  they  can  never  give.  Leaving  the  ancients,  let 
us  come  to  the  poets  and  the  poetry  of  Christendom.  Dante,  Shaks- 
peare,  Moliere,  Milton,  Goethe,  are  altogether  larger  and  more  splen- 
did luminaries  in  the  poetical  heaven  than  Wordsworth.  But  I  know 
not  where  else,  among  the  moderns,  we  are  to  find  his  superiors.  — 
Matthew  Arnold :  Preface  to  Wordsworth's  Poems. 

An  Introduction  setting  forth  broadly  the  Limits  and  Purpose. 

Of  those  who  in  August,  1806,  read  in  the  English  newspapers  that 
the  Emperor  Francis  II.  had  announced  to  the  Diet  his  resignation  of 
the  imperial  crown,  there  were  probably  few  who  reflected  that  the 
oldest  political  institution  in  the  world  had  come  to  an  end.  Yet  it 
was  so.  The  Empire  which  a  note  issued  by  a  diplomat  on  the  banks 
of  the  Danube  extinguished,  was  the  same  which  the  crafty  nephew 
of  Julius  had  won  for  himself,  against  the  powers  of  the  East,  beneath 
the  cliffs  of  Actiuin ;  and  which  had  preserved  almost  unaltered, 
through  eighteen  centuries  of  time,  and  through  the  greatest  changes 
in  extent,  in  power,  in  character,  a  title  and  pretensions  from  which 
all  meaning  had  long  since  departed.  Nothing  else  so  directly  linked 
the  old  world  to  the  new  —  nothing  else  displayed  so  many  strange 


Appendix  D  2.  187 

contrasts  of  the  present  and  the  past,  and  summed  up  in  those  con- 
trasts so  much  of  European  history.  From  the  days  of  Constantine 
till  far  down  into  the  middle  ages  it  was,  conjointly  with  the  Papacy, 
the  recognized  head  and  center  of  Christendom,  exercising  over  the 
minds  of  men  an  influence  such  as  its  material  strength  could  never 
have  commanded.  It  is  of  this  influence  and  of  the  causes  that  gave 
it  power,  rather  than  the  external  history  of  the  Empire,  that  the  fol- 
lowing pages  are  designed  to  treat.  —  Bryce :  The  Holy  Eoman 
Empire^  p.  1. 

Introduction  by  a  Comparison. 

Quiritus  Curtius  tells  us  that,  in  certain  seasons,  Bactria  was  dark- 
ened by  whirlwinds  of  dust,  which  completely  covered  and  concealed 
the  roads.  Left  thus  without  their  usual  landmarks,  the  wanderers 
awaited  the  rising  of  the  stars,  —  "To  light  them  on  their  dim  and 
perilous  way."  May  we  not  say  the  same  of  Literature  ?  From 
time  to  time  its  pathways  are  so  obscured  beneath  the  rubbish  of  the 
age,  that  many  a  footsore  pilgrim  seeks  in  vain  the  hidden  route.  In 
such  times  it  may  be  well  to  imitate  the  Bactrians  :  ceasing  to  look 
upon  the  confusions  of  the  day,  and  turning  our  gaze  upon  the  great 
Immortals  who  have  gone  before,  we  may  seek  guidance  from  their 
light.  In  all  ages  the  biographies  of  great  men  have  been  fruitful  in 
lessons ;  in  all  ages  they  have  been  powerful  stimulants  to  a  noble 
ambition ;  in  all  ages  they  have  been  regarded  as  armories  wherein 
are  gathered  the  weapons  with  which  great  battles  have  been  won.  — 
Lewes  :  The  Story  of  Goethe's  Life. 

2. 

TRANSITIONAL  AND  DIRECTIVE  PARAGRAPHS. 
A  Paragraph  of  Transition. 

And  now  permit  me  to  add  a  few  observations  on  another  aspect 
of  this  subject,  which  is  not  without  its  importance.  —  Hamerton  : 
Intellectual  Life,  Part  ix.  Letter  v. 

A  Directive  Paragraph. 

From  Milton's  poetry  we  turn  to  his  prose  ;  and  first  it  is  objected 
to  his  prose  writings  that  the  style  is  difficult  and  obscure,  abounding 


188  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

in  involutions,  transpositions,  and  Latinisms ;  that  his  protracted 
sentences  exhaust  and  weary  the  mind,  and  too  often  yield  it  no 
better  recompense  than  confused  and  indistinct  perceptions.  —  Chan- 
ning:  Milton. 

[The  thought  having  thus  been  directed  from  Milton's  poetry  to 
the  objections  urged  against  Milton's  prose,  the  next  paragraph  is 
occupied  with  the  consideration  of  these  objections.] 


A  Paragraph  of  Transition. 

[Shelley  (Defense  of  Poetry)  has  just  shown  that  the  highest 
pleasure  is  linked  with  pain.] 

The  production  and  assurance  of  pleasure  in  this  highest  sense  is 
true  utility.  Those  who  produce  and  preserve  this  pleasure  are  poets 
or  poetical  philosophers.  [In  the  next  paragraph  they  are  named.] 


A  Paragraph  of  Transition  and  Amplification. 

A  second  reason  which  lends  an  emphasis  of  novelty  and  effective 
power  to  Shakespeare's  female  world  is  a  peculiar  fact  of  contrast 
which  exists  between  that  and  his  corresponding  world  of  men.  Let 
us  explain.  —  De  Quiricey :  Biographies.  [The  remainder  of  the 
paragraph  is  occupied  with  the  explanation.] 


A  Directive  Paragraph. 

Adhering,  Sir,  as  I  do,  to  this  policy,  as  well  as  for  the  reasons  I 
have  just  given,  I  think  this  new  project  of  hedging- in  population  to 
be  neither  prudent  nor  practicable.  —  Burke :  Speech  on  Concilia- 
tion. [In  the  following  paragraphs  Burke  shows  why.] 


A  Directive  Paragraph  making  an    Unexpected    Change  of 

Subject. 

The  very  great  length  to  which  this  article  has  already  been 
extended  makes  it  impossible  for  us  to  discuss,  as  we  had  meant  to 
do,  the  characters  and  conduct  of  the  leading  English  statesmen  at 
this  crisis.  But  we  must  offer  a  few  remarks  on  the  spirit  and 


Appendix  D  3.  189 

tendency  of  the  Revolution  of  1688.  —  Macaulay :  Sir  James  Mack- 
intosh's History  of  the  Bevolution,  p.  338. 


3. 

AMPLIFYING  PARAGRAPHS. 

[Lord  Bolingbroke,  in  his  Study  of  History,  announces,  in  one 
paragraph,  the  fact  that  history  widens  our  experience  and  corrects 
our  narrowness.  In  the  next  paragraph  he  amplifies  this  idea  by 
means  of  examples,  as  follows :  ] 

Let  me  explain  what  I  mean  by  an  example.  There  is  scarce  any 
folly  or  vice  more  epidemical  among  the  sons  of  men  than  that 
ridiculous  and  hurtful  vanity  by  which  the  people  of  each  country  are 
apt  to  prefer  themselves  to  those  of  every  other ;  and  to  make  their 
own.  customs,  and  manners,  and  opinions,  the  standards  of  right  and 
wrong,  of  true  and  false.  The  Chinese  mandarins  were  strangely 
surprised,  and  almost  incredulous,  when  the  Jesuits  showed  them  how 
small  a  figure  their  empire  made  in  the  general  map  of  the  world. 
The  Samojedes  wondered  much  at  the  Czar  of  Muscovy  for  not  living 
among  them ;  .  .  .  now  nothing  can  contribute  more  to  prevent  us 
from  being  tainted  with  this  vanity  than  to  accustom  ourselves  early 
to  contemplate.the  different  nations  of  the  earth  in  that  vast  map 
which  history  spreads  before  us  ...  I  might  shew  by  a  multitude 
of  other  examples  how  history  prepares  us  for  experience  and  guides 
us  in  it  ...  1  might  likewise  bring  several  other  instances  wherein 
history  serves  to  purge  the  mind  of  those  national  partialities  and  prej- 
udices that  we  are  apt  to  contract  in  our  education.  —  Bolingbroke  : 
Of  the  Study  of  History,  Letter  ii. 

A  Paragraph  of  Amplification  expanding  a  Thought 
already  hinted  at. 

What  may  we  imagine  his  own  feeling  to  have  been  in  this  crisis  of 
his  fate  ?  The  thought  of  Edinburgh  society  would  naturally  stir 
that  ambition  which  was  strong  within  him,  and  awaken  a  desire  to 
meet  the  men  who  were  praising  him  in  the  capital,  and  to  try  his 
powers  in  that  wide  arena.  It  might  be  that  in  that  new  scene  some- 
thing might  occur  which  would  reverse  the  current  of  his  fortunes, 
and  set  him  free  from  the  crushing  poverty  that  had  hitherto  kept  him 


190  Paragraph -Writing. 

down.  Anyhow,  he  was  conscious  of  strong  powers  which  fitted  him 
to  shine,  not  in  poetry  only,  but  in  conversation  and  discussion  ;  and, 
ploughman  though  he  was,  he  did  not  shrink  from  encountering  any 
man  or  any  set  of  men.  Proud,  too,  we  know  he  was,  and  his  pride 
showed  itself  in  jealousy  and  suspicion  of  the  classes  who  were  socially 
above  him,  until  such  feelings  were  melted  by  kindly  intercourse  with 
some  individual  man  belonging  to  the  suspected  orders.  He  felt  him- 
self to  surpass  in  natural  powers  those  who  were  his  superiors  in  rank 
and  fortune,  and  he  could  not,  for  the  life  of  him,  see  why  they  should 
be  full  of  this  world's  goods,  while  he  had  none  of  them.  He  had  not 
yet  learned  —  he  never  did  learn  —  that  lesson,  that  the  genius  he  had 
received  was  his  allotted  portion,  and  that  his  wisdom  lay  in  making 
the  most  of  this  rare  inward  gift,  even  on  a  meagre  allowance  of  the 
world's  external  goods.  But  perhaps,  whether  he  knew  it  or  not, 
the  greatest  attraction  of  the  capital  was  that  in  that  new  excitement 
he  might  escape  from  the  demons  of  remorse  and  despair  which  had 
for  many  months  been  dogging  him.  He  may  have  fancied  this,  but 
the  pangs  which  Burns  had  created  for  himself  were  too  deep  to  be 
in  this  way  permanently  put  by.  —  Shairp :  Robert  Burns,  p.  39. 


A  Paragraph  amplifying  the  Thought  stated  at  the  Close 

of  the  Preceding. 

• 

The  secret  of  his  settled  unhappiness  lay  in  the  affections  that  he 
had  abused  in  himself  and  in  others  who  had  trusted  him.  The  course 
he  had  run  since  his  Irvine  sojourn  was  not  of  a  kind  to  give  peace  to 
him  or  to  any  man.  A  coarse  man  of  the  world  might  have  stifled  the 
tender  voices  that  were  reproaching  him,  and  have  gone  on  his  way 
uncaring  that  his  conduct  — 

"  Hardened  a'  within, 
And  petrified  the  feeling." 

But  Burns  could  not  do  this.  The  heart  that  had  responded  so  feel- 
ingly to  the  sufferings  of  lower  creatures,  the  unhoused  mouse,  the 
shivering  cattle,  the  wounded  hare,  could  not  without  shame  remem- 
ber the  wrongs  he  had  done  to  those  human  beings  whose  chief  fault 
was  that  they  had  trusted  him  not  wisely  but  too  well.  And  these 
suggestions  of  a  sensitive  heart,  conscience  was  at  hand  to  enforce  — 
a  conscience  wonderfully  clear  to  discern  the  right,  even  when  the  will 
was  least  able  to  fulfil  it.  The  excitements  of  a  great  city,  and  the 
loud  praises  of  his  fellow-men,  might  enable  him  momentarily  to  for- 


Appendix  E.  191 

get,  but  could  not  permanently  stifle  inward  voices  like  these.  So  it 
was  with  a  heart  but  ill  at  ease,  bearing  dark  secrets  he  could  tell  to 
no  one,  that  Burrs  passed  from  his  Ayreshire  cottage  into  the  applause 
of  the  Scottish  capital.  —  Shairp :  Robert  Burns,  p.  40. 


APPENDIX  E. 
RHETORICAL  ANALYSIS. 

1.  Let  each  student  read  one  of  the  stories,  essays,  or 
speeches  referred  to  in  the  list   below.     The   essays   and 
speeches  will  be  the  best  to  begin  the  work  with. 

2.  As  he  reads  he  should  write  in  his  note-book,  (1)  the 
theme  of  each  paragraph ;   (2)  the  function  of  each  para- 
graph, whether  transitional,  directive,  amplifying,  illustra- 
tive, etc. ;   (3)  he  should  note  what  bearing  each  paragraph 
has  upon  the  subject  of  the  whole  selection  and  how  it  car- 
ries forward  the  plan  as  a  whole ;  (4)  he  should  make  from 
his  notes  a  connected  synopsis  of  the  selection. 

3-  At  a  subsequent  meeting  of  the  class,  the  members 
report,  the  selections  are  reproduced  orally  from  the  synop- 
sis, and  any  paragraph  whose  function  could  not  be  deter- 
mined is  read  in  full  and  criticised  or  explained  by  the 
class. 

4.  In  the  case  of  the  longer  selections,  report  the  main 
points  and   make  a  synopsis  of  the  whole  selection;   but 
determine   the   rhetorical   functions  of   only  a  reasonable 
number  of  the  paragraphs.     The  work  may  be  done  piece- 
meal, the  student  reporting  a  part  of  his  analysis  from  week 
to  week.     Copy  and  bring  into  class  for  criticism  and  dis- 
cussion whole  paragraphs  about  which  there  is  doubt  when 
read. 

5.  For  the  first  exercise  let  all  the  class  analyze  the  same 
speech  or  essay. 


192  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

6.  The  list  given  in  Appendix  C  3  (&)  may  also  be  drawn 
upon  for  this  work. 


(a)    STORIES. 

1.  Aldrich.     Marjorie  Daw.     Atlan.,  31 :  407. 

2.  Hawthorne.     The  Gentle  Boy. 

3.  Higginson.     A  Charge  with  Prince  Eupert.     Atlan., 
3  :  725. 

4.  Hale.    The  Man  Without  a  Country.    Atlan.,  12  :  665. 

5.  Jewett.     The  Shore  House.     Atlan.,  32  :  358. 

6.  Eggleston.     Gunpowder  Plot.     Scribner,  2  :  252. 

7.  Davis.     Life  in  the  Iron  Mills.     Atlan.,  7  :  430. 

8.  Hale.     My  Double  and  how  he  Undid  Me.     Atlan., 
4 : 356. 

9.  Higginson.     The  Puritan  Minister.     Atlan.  Essays, 
191. 

10.  Howells.     A  Pedestrian  Tour.     Atlan.,  24  :  591. 

11.  Higginson.    A  Night  in  the  Water.    Atlan.,  14  :  393. 

12.  Burroughs.      Tragedies     of     the    Nests.      Century, 
4 :  680. 

13.  Burroughs.     Signs  and  Seasons.     Century,  3  :  672. 

14.  Bishop.     Braxton's  New  Art.     Century,  6  :  871. 

15.  Bunner.      The   Red    Silk    Handkerchief.     Century, 
6 :  275. 

16.  Stockton.     Wreck  of  the  Thomas  Hyke.     Century, 
6  :  587. 

17.  Janvier.     Orpiment  and  Gamboge.     Century,  7 :  397. 

18.  Foote.     A  Cloud  on  the  Mountain.     Century,  9  :  28. 

19.  Jackson.    The  Mystery  of  William  Rutter.    Century, 
9 : 103. 

20.  Boyeson.     A  Child  of  the  Age.     Century,  9  : 177. 

21.  Clemens.     The  Private  History  of  a  Campaign  that 
Failed.     Century,  9  : 193. 

22.  Matthews.     Perturbed  Spirits.     Century,  10  :  74. 


Appendix  E.  193 

23.  Page.     A  Soldier  of  the  Empire.     Century,  10  :  948. 

24.  Hart.     Left  out  on  Lone  Star  Mountain.     Longm., 
3 : 259. 

25.  Dodge.     Pursuit  of  Knowledge   Under  Difficulties. 
Atlan.,  5  :  272,  417. 

26.  Thanet.     Day  of    the  Cyclone.      Scribner   (1ST.  S.), 
3  :  350. 

27.  Haggard.     Maiwa's  Revenge.     Harper,  77  : 181. 

28.  Harte.    An  Apostle  of  the  Tules.    Longm.,  1885  :  67. 

29.  Wilson.     Tale  of  Expiation.     Recreations  of  Chris- 
topher North,  p.  33. 

30.  Aldrich.     A  Midnight  Fantasy.     Atlan.,  35  :  385. 

31.  Phelps.     In  the  Gray  Goth.     Atlan.,  6  :  587. 

32.  Jewett.     Deephaven  Cronies.     Atlan.,  36  :  316. 

33.  James.     The  Last  of  the  Valerii.     Atlan.,  33 : 169. 

34.  Taylor.     Who  was  She  ?     Atlan.,  34  :  257. 

35.  Stockton.     Our  Story.     Century,  4  :  762. 

36.  Aldrich.     A  Struggle  for  Life.     Atlan.,  20  :  56. 

37.  A  Story  of  Assisted  Fate.     Atlan.,  55  :  58. 

38.  Taylor.     A  Week  on  Capri.     Atlan.,  21 :  740. 

39.  Howells.     A  Shaker  Village.     Atlan.,  37  :  699. 

40.  Lowell.   A  Pocket  Celebration  of  the  Fourth.   Atlan., 
2 :  374. 

41.  Hawthorne.  Ethan  Brand.    (In  the  Snow  Image,  etc.) 

42.  Cable.     Don  Joaquin.     Harper,  52  :  281. 

43.  McCarthy.     Wanted  —  A  Soul.     Harper,  52  :  549. 

44.  Woolson.     Miss  Vedder.     Harper,  58  :  590. 

45.  Davis.     A  Story  of  the  Plague.     Harper,  58  :  443. 

46.  Stockton.     The  Transferred  Ghost.     Century,  2  :  43. 

47.  McDonald.   The  Portent.   Corah.,  1 :  617,  670;  2  :  74. 

48.  Gray.     The  Silver  Casket.     Murray's  Mag.,  2 :  203. 

49.  Hardy.     The  Waiting  Supper.    Murray's  Mag.,  3  :  42, 
199. 

50.  Appleton.     A  Half-Life  and  Half  a  Life.     Atlantic 
Stories. 


1 94  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

51.  Whelpley.     The  Denslow  Palace.     Atlantic  Stories. 

52.  Cooke.     Miss  Lucinda.     Atlantic  Stories. 

53.  Hale.     The  Queen  of  the  Red  Chessmen.     Atlantic 
Stories. 

54.  Nordhoff.    Elkanah  Brewster's  Temptation.    Atlantic 
Stories. 

55.  Chesbro.     Victor  and  Jacqueline.     Atlantic  Stories. 

56.  Arnold.     Why  Thomas  Was   Discharged.     Atlantic 
Stories. 

57.  Lowell.     A    Eaft    that    No    Man    Made.     Atlantic 
Stories. 

58.  O'Brien.     The  Diamond  Lens.     Atlantic  Stories. 

59.  Jewett.     Marsh  Rosemary.     Atlan.,  57  :  590. 

60.  De  Quincey.     Joan  of  Arc. 

61.  Thackeray.     The  Fatal  Boots. 

62.  Craddocls.     His  Day  in  Court.     Harper,  76  :  56. 

63.  Matthews.     A  Secret  of  the  Sea.     Harper,  71 :  78. 

64.  Bishop.     Choy  Susan.     Atlan.,  54  : 1. 

65.  Hawthorne.     Ken's  Mystery.     Harper,  67  :  925. 

66.  Jewett.     King  of  Folly  Island.     Harper,  74  : 10. 

67.  Frederic.     Brother  Angelus.     Harper,  73  :  517. 

68.  Craddock.     Lonesome  Cove.     Harper,  72  : 128. 

69.  Reade.     Tit  for  Tat.     Harper,  66  :  251. 

70.  Boyeson.     A  Dangerous  Virtue.     Scribner,  21 :  745. 

71.  Boyeson.     The  Man  who  Lost  his  Name.     Scribner, 
12:808.   ' 

72.  Clemens.     A  Curious  Experience.     Century,  1 :  35. 

73.  Phelps.     The  Tenth  of  January.     Atlan.,  21 :  345. 

74.  Bishop.     The  Brown-Stone  Boy.     Atlan.,  55  :  330. 

75.  Taylor.     Friend  Eli's  Daughter.     Atlan.,  10  :  99. 

76.  Thackeray.     Bluebeard's  Ghost. 

77.  James.     The  Romance  of  Certain  Old  Clothes. 

78.  Aldrich.     A  Rivermouth  Romance.     Atlan.,  30  : 157. 

79.  Dickens.     Wreck  of  the  Golden  Mary. 

80.  Dickens.     George  Silverman's  Explanation. 


Appendix  E.  195 

81.  Thackeray.     Eebecca  and  Eowena.     In  "Christmas 
Books." 

82.  Bishop.     One  of  the  Thirty  Pieces.     Atlan.,  37  :  43. 

83.  Hale.     The  Modern  Psyche.     Harper,  51 :  885. 

84.  Stevenson.     The  Merry  Men. 

85.  Lamb.     Adventures  of  Ulysses. 

86.  Pyle.     Stephen  Wycherley.     Harper,  75  :  56. 

87.  Woolson.     A  Flower  of  the  Snow.     Galaxy,  17  :  76. 


(b)  ESSAYS,  SPEECHES,  SKETCHES. 

1.  Eepresentative  British  Orations.     3  vols. 

2.  Eepresentative  American  Orations.     3  vols. 

3.  Huntington.     A    Plea    for    Eailway    Consolidation. 
No.  Am.,  153  :  272.  * 

4.  Livermore.     Cooperative  Womanhood  in  the  State. 
No.  Am.,  153  :  283. 

5.  Douglass.     Hayti  and  the  United  States.     No.  Am., 
153  :  337. 

6.  Bryce.     Thoughts  on  the  Negro  Problem.     No.  Am., 
153:641. 

7.  Luce.     Benefits  of  War.     No.  Am.,  153  :  672. 

8.  Powderly.     The  Workingman  and  Free  Silver.     No. 
Am.,  153  :  728. 

9.  Hubert.   The  New  Talking  Machines.  Atlan.,  63  :  256. 

10.  Parkman.     The  Acadian  Tragedy.     Harper,  69  :  877. 

11.  Starbuck.     Hawthorne.     Andover  Eeview,  7  :  31. 

12.  Phelps.     Shylock  vs.  Antonio,  Atlan.,  57  :  463. 

13.  Long.     Of  Style.     An  Old  Man's  Thoughts. 

14.  Locksley  Hall  and  Sixty  Years  After.     Poet  Lore, 
Jan.  1893. 

15.  Davis.    Shakespeare's  Miranda  and  Tennyson's  Elaine. 
Poet  Lore,  Jan.  1893. 

16.  Stoddard.     The   English   Laureates.     Cosmop.  Jan. 
1893. 


196  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

17.  Billson.     The    English    Novel.     Westminster   Eev. 
Jan.  1893. 

18.  Rogers.     G.  W.   Curtis  and  Civil   Service   Eeform. 
Atlan.  Jan.  1893. 

19.  Johnson.     The   Transformation   of   Energy.     West- 
min.  Eev.  Dec.  1892. 

20.  White.     Homes   of   the    Poor.     Chautauquan,    Jan. 
1893. 

21.  Bartlett.     The  Prison  Question.     Am.  Jour.  Politics, 
Jan.  1893. 

22.  Higginson.     Boston.     St.  Nicholas,  Jan.  1893. 

23.  Acworth.    Eailway  Mismanagement.    19th  Cent.  Dec. 
1892. 

24.  Brooke.     Tennyson.     Contemp.  Eev.  Dec.  1893. 

25.  Mace.     Universal  Suffrage  in  France.     No.  Am.  Jan. 
1893* 

26.  Dodge.     A  Bible  Lesson  for  Herbert  Spencer.     No. 
Am.  Jan.  1893. 

27.  Williams.     The  Kindergarten  Movement.     Century, 
Jan.  1893. 

28.  Flower.    Are  We  a  Prosperous  People  ?    Arena,  Jan. 
1893. 

29.  Hadley.     Jay  Gould   and   Socialism.     Forum,  Jan. 
1893. 

30.  Campbell.    Women  Wage  Earners.    Arena,  Jan.  1893. 

31.  Hadley.     Ethics  as  a  Political  Science.     Yale  Eev. 
Nov.  1892. 

32.  Gosse.     Tennyson.     New  Eev.  Nov.  1892. 

33.  Kingsley.    English  Literature.    Lit.  and  Gen.  Essays, 
245. 

34.  Eepplier.     Benefits  of  Superstition.     Books  and  Men, 
33. 

35.  Dawkins.     Settlement   of   Wales.     Fort.   Eev.    Oct. 
1892. 

36.  Edmunds.     Politics  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Dec.  1892. 


Appendix  E.  197 

37.  Scudder.     The  Place  of  College   Settlements.     An- 
dover  Eev.  Oct.  1892. 

38.  Adams.    Municipal  Government..    Forum,  Nov.  1892. 

39.  Andrews.     Are  there  too  Many  of  Us  ?     No.   Am. 
Nov.  1892. 

40.  Matthews.     Two   Studies    of   the    South.     Cosmop. 
Nov.  1892. 

41.  Cable.     Education   for  the    South.     Cosrnop.     Nov. 
1892. 

42.  Walsh.     The  Ethics  of  Great  Strikes.     No.  Am.  Oct. 
1892. 

43.  Gunsaulus.     The   Ideal   of    Culture.     Chautauquan, 
Oct.  1892. 

44.  Stoddard.    James  Russell  Lowell.    Lippincott's,  Oct. 
1892. 

45.  Garner.     Monkey's  Academy  in  Africa.     New  Eev. 
Sept.  1892. 

46.  Lowell.     Old  English  Dramatists.      Harper's,  June- 
Sept.  1892. 

47.  Patmore.       Three    Essayettes.       Fort.    Eev.    July 
1892. 

48.  Adams.      Some   Eecent    Novels.      Fort.  Eev.  July 
1892. 

49.  Johnson.     The   First   University.      Westmm.    Eev. 
Sept.  1892. 

50.  Flower.     The  Menace  of  Plutocracy.     Arena,  Sept. 
1892. 

51.  Habberton.     Social  Science  in  Business  Life.     Chau- 
tauquan,  Sept.  1892. 

52.  Besant.     Literature  as  a  Career.     Forum,  Aug.  1892. 

53.  Farrar.      Shaftesbury's   Work    among    the    London 
Poor.     Meth.  Mag.  Aug.  1892. 

54.  Woodbury.     Shelley's  Work.     Century,  Aug.  1892. 

55.  Eepplier.     Wit  and  Humor.     Atlan.  Dec.  1892. 

56.  Fowler.    Whittier  and  Tennyson.     Arena,  Dec.  1892. 


1 98  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

57.  Gladden.     The  Problem  of  Poverty.     Century,  Dec. 
1892. 

58.  Smith.     Arnold  of  Eugby.     Educ.  Rev.  Dec.  1892. 

59.  Nevinson.     Goethe  as  a  Minister  of  State.     Contemp. 
Rev.  Nov.  1892. 

60.  Gladstone.     Did   Dante  Study    in    Oxford?     Nine- 
teenth Cent.,  June  1892. 

61.  Schwatka.     Land  of  the  Living  Cliff  Dwellers.    Cen- 
tury, June  1892. 

62.  Bellamy.      Progress  of  Nationalism  in  the  United 
States.     No.  Am.  -June  1892. 

63.  Bigelow.     Bismarck.     Contemp.  Eev.  May  1892. 

64.  Parke.    How  General  Gordon  was  Really  Lost.    Nine- 
teenth Cent.  May  1892. 

65.  Eddy.     My    Business    Partner  —  the     Government. 
Forum,  May  1892. 

66.  Tyndall.     Coast  Protection.     New  Eev.  April  1892. 

67.  Mooney,     Catholic     Controversy    about    Education. 
Educ.  Eev.  March  1892. 

68.  Hanus.     The  Influence  of  Comenius.      Educ.    Eev. 
March  1892. 

69.  Gladden.     The    Plain   Path   of  Reform.      Charities 
Review,  April  1892. 

70.  Delboef.     Criminal  Suggestion  by  Hypnotism.     Mon- 
ist,  April  1892. 

71.  Bradley.     Patrick  Henry.     Macmillan's  Mag.  March 
1892. 

72.  Scudamore.     Egypt  and  the  Late  Khedive.     Black- 
wood's,  Feb.  1892. 

73.  Gilder.     Paderewski.     Century,  March  1892. 

74.  Hubbard.     The  Tax  on  Barbarism.     N.  E.  and  Yale 
Rev.  March  1892. 

75.  Buel.     The  Louisiana  Lottery.     Century,  Feb.  1892. 

76.  White.     Suppression    of    Lotteries.      Forum,    Feb. 
1892. 


Appendix  'E.  199 


77. 


The  Short  Story.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

78.  Edmunds.     Perils  of  our  National  Elections.    Forum, 
Feb.  1892. 

79.  Tolman.     Studies  in  Macbeth.     Atlan.  Feb.  1892. 

80.  Dodge.     Progress  in  Agriculture.     Amer.  Agric.  Jan. 
1892. 

81.  Gale.     The   Marble   Faun  Interpreted.     K  E.   and 
Yale  Eev.  Jan.  1892. 

82.  Boyesen.     W.  D.   Howells  and  his  Work.     Cosmop. 
Feb.  1892. 

83.  Arnold.     Love  and  Marriage  in  Japan.    Cosmop.  Feb. 
1892. 

84.  Atkinson   and  Cabot.     Personal  Liberty.     Pop.  Sc. 
Mo.  Feb.  1892. 

85.  Adams.     Eise  and  Fall  of  Fonseca.     Cosmop.  Feb. 
1892. 

86.  Goodwin.  English  and  American  Schoolboys.    School 
and  College,  Feb.  1892. 

87.  Macgregor.     Socialism.     Bib.  Sac.  Jan.  1892. 

88.  Walker.     How  a  Bill  presented  in  Congress  becomes 
a  Law.     Chautauquan,  Feb.  1892. 

89.  Davies.     Compulsory  Education.    Westminster  Eev. 
Feb.  1892. 

90.  Earle.      The    Study    of    English.      Forum,    March 
1892. 

91.  Cox.    Men  of  '61.    Why  they  Fought.     Atlan.  March 
1892. 

92.  Lathrop.     John  Boyle  O'Eeilly.     Cent.  Dec.  1891. 

93.  Lowell.     Shakespeare's   Eichard   III.      Atlan.   Dec. 
1891. 

94.  Sears.      Football  —  Sport  and  Training.     'No.    Am. 
Eev.  Dec.  1891. 

95.  James.     James  Eussell  Lowell.     Atlan.  Jan.  1892. 

96.  Powell.     A  World-wide  Eepublic.    Arena,  Jan.  1892. 

97.  Stedman.     Juliet's  Runaway.     Poet-Lore,  Jan,  1892. 


200  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

98.  Mills.     General  Booth's  Experiment.     Unitar.  Rev. 
Dec.  1891. 

99.  Walton.     A  Brief  for    Ophelia.     Poet-Lore,   Nov. 
1891. 

100.  Handy.     Negro    Superstitions.     Lippincott's,   Dec. 
1891. 

101.  Freeman.   Dangers  to  the  Peace  of  Europe.    Forum, 
Nov.  1891. 

102.  Benton.     Lowell's  Americanism.     Cent.  Nov.  1891. 

103.  Potter.    The  Profit  of  Good  Country  Eoads.   Forum, 
Nov.  1891. 

104.  Atkinson.     Free  Coinage  of  Silver.     Forum,  Oct. 
1891. 

105.  Farrar.     An  English  Estimate  of  Lowell.     Forum, 
Oct.  1891. 

106.  Gosse.     Eudyard  Kipling.     Century,  Oct.  1891. 

107.  Eepplier.     The  Oppression  of  Notes.     Atlan.  Aug. 
1891. 

108.  Clark.     Public  Life.     Forum,  July,  1891. 

109.  McCracken.     Six    Centuries    of    Self-G-overnment. 
Atlan.  Aug.  1891. 

110.  Walker.     Immigration  and  Degradation.      Forum, 
Aug.  1891. 

111.  Thatcher.     The  Failure  of  the  Jury  System.     No. 
Am.  Eev.  Aug.  1891. 

112.  Dilke.     Trades  Unions  for  Women.     No.  Am.  Eev. 
Aug.  1891. 

113.  Hurlbut.     Eeciprocity  and  Canada.     No.  Am.  Eev. 
Oct.  1891. 

114.  Shaler.     Nature  of  the  Negro.     Arena,  Dec.  1891. 

115.  Mathews.     The  Whole  Duty  of  Critics.     New  Eev. 
Nov.  1890. 

116.  Martin.    The  Chinese  as  they  See  Us.    Forum,  Feb. 
1891. 

117.  Gosse.      Influence    of    Democracy    on    Literature. 
Conternp.  Eev.  Apr.  1891. 


Appendix  E.  201 

118.  Osgood.     Political  Ideas  of  the  Puritans.     Pol.  Sc. 
Quart.  March  1891. 

119.  Eainsford.  What  can  We  Do  for  the  Poor  ?  Forum, 
Apr.  1891. 

120.  McCracken.    Arnold  Winkelreid.    Atlan.  Apr.  1891. 

121.  Eice.     The  Example  of  a  Great  Life.   No.  Am.  Eev. 
Apr.  1891. 

122.  Morris.     New  Africa.     Lippincott's,  Apr.  1891. 

123.  Nelson.     Town  and  Village  Government.     Harper's, 
June  1891. 

124.  Eichardson.    The  College  Settlement.    Lippincott's, 
June  1891. 

125.  Walker.      Colored    Eace    in    the    United    States. 
Forum,  July  1891. 

126.  Buckley.      Christianity  and   Socialism.      Harper's, 
July  1891. 

127.  Dewey.     Poetry  and  Philosophy.      Andover    Eev. 
Aug.  1891. 

128.  Caylor.     Theory  and  Introduction  of  Curve  Pitch- 
ing.    Outing,  Aug.  1891. 

129.  Blum.     The  Russia  of  To-day.     Arena,  May  1891. 

130.  Eouss.  Cash  vs.  Credit.  Belford's  Mag.  March  1891. 

131.  Spreckels.     The  Future  of  the  Sandwich  Islands. 
No.  Am.  Eev.  March  1891. 

132.  Salter.     The  Problem  of  the   Unemployed.     New 
Eng.  Mag.  March  1891. 

133.  Stark.     Silver  Coinage.     Arena,  Jan.  1891. 

134.  Shearman.     The  Coming  Billionaire.     Forum,  Jan. 
1891. 

135.  Shaler.     Individualism  in  Education.     Atlan.  Jan. 
1891. 

136.  Allen.    The  Case  of  Eoger  Williams.     Unitar.  Eev. 
Jan.  1891. 

137.  McCracken.     Legend  of  William  Tell.     Atlan.  Nov. 
1890. 


202  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

138.  Gladden.     The  Embattled  Farmers.     Forum,  Nov. 
1890. 

139.  Kitson.     The  Logic  of  Free  Trade  and  Protection. 
Pop.  Sc.  Mo.  Nov.  1890. 

140.  Tilly.     The  Shibboleth  of  Public  Opinion.     Forum, 
Nov.  1890. 

141.  Stoddard.     Thomas  Buchanan  Reed.     Lippincott's, 
Feb.  1891 

142.  Bridges.     Coeducation  in  Swiss  Universities.     Pop. 
Sc.  Mo.  Feb.  1891. 

143.  Eoosevelt.     An  Object  Lesson  in  Civil  Service  Ee- 
form.     Atlan.  Feb.  1891. 

144.  Miles.     Progress  in  Agricultural  Science.     Pop.  Sc. 
Mo.  Feb.  1891. 

145.  Hyatt.     Public  Parks.     Atlan.  Feb.  1891. 

146.  Woods.     University   Extension  in   England.     An- 
dover  Eev.  March  1891. 

147.  Coxe.       Do   we    Hate   England  ?      Forum,   March 
1891. 

148.  Danziger.     Labor  Unions  and  Strikes   in  Ancient 
Eome.     Cosmop.  March  1891. 

149.  Graham.     Supposed  Tendencies  to  Socialism.     Pop. 
Sc.  Mo.  March  1891. 

150.  Child.     The  Argentine  Capital.      Harper's,  March 
1891. 


APPENDIX   F. 
EEPOBTING,  EDITING,  AND  PROOFREADING. 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  description  and  narra- 
tion, and  the  writing  of  paragraphs  and  essays  in  those 
branches  of  rhetoric,  it  is  possible  to  make  liberal  use  of  the 
events  that  are  taking  place  in  the  community.  The  class 


Appendix  F.  203 

may  be  organized  into  groups  for  reporting  different  local 
events  of  importance,  and  for  describing  local  points  of 
interest.  The  assignment  of  events  to  be  reported  may  be 
made  beforehand  together  with  directions  as  to  the  length 
and  character  of  the  articles  expected.  Reports  are  written 
and  handed  in  at  a  time  specified,  and  are  -read  by  the  in- 
structor and  criticised  by  the  class  as  to  wording,  method 
of  treatment,  success  in  picturing  the  scene,  etc.  The  dif- 
ferent reports  are,  in  fact,  edited  by  the  class,  as  if  for  pub- 
lication. The  use  of  printers'  marks  as  given  on  page  1928 
of  Webster's  International  Dictionary,  or  on  pages  131-3  in 
HilPs  Elements  of  Rhetoric  may  be  taught  by  practice  in 
connection  with  this  work.  Proof-sheets  in  which  errors 
of  all  kinds  are  purposely  multiplied,  may  be  secured  at  any 
printing  office  at  small  expense,  and  these  may  be  distrib- 
uted to  students  for  correction  of  errors. 

A  proof-sheet  consists  of  two  parts :  first,  the  body  of 
type  which  is  to  be  corrected ;  second,  the  broad  white  mar- 
gin in  which  the  corrections  are  indicated  for  the  printer. 
Corresponding  to  these  two  parts  are  two  general  classes  of 
correction-marks  :  (1)  Those  which  are  written  in  the  body 
of  the  type  to  point  out  the  place  where  correction  is 
needed ;  (2)  Those  which  are  written  in  the  margin  to  show 
the  nature  of  the  correction. 

(1)  The  marks  inserted  in  the  type  comprise  (a)  strokes 
made   through   letters,    words,  or    marks   of   punctuation, 
(b)  carets  and  inverted  carets,  (c)  horizontal  curves,  and 
(d)  underscoring  with  lines  and  dots. 

(2)  The  signs  used  in  the  margin  may  be  classified  as 

(a)  words,  letters,  punctuation,  etc.,  that  are  intended  to 
take  the  place  of  errors  in  the  type,  or  to  supply  omissions ; 

(b)  abbreviations  of  such  terms  as  '  transpose/  '  wrong  font/ 
etc.,  words  which  indicate  to  the  printer  the  kind  of  error 
chat  has  been  committed;  (c)  conventional  signs  that  have 
come  down  from  the  early  days  of  the  art  of  printing. 


204  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

These  two  classes  of  signs  should  always  be  used  in  con- 
junction. Every  error  marked  in  the  type  must  have  a  cor- 
responding mark  in  the  margin  to  attract  the  printer's  eye ; 
no  mark  is  to  be  made  in  the  margin  which  has  not  some 
corresponding  mark  in  the  type.  But  the  two  classes  must 
be  kept  each  in  its  proper  place.  In  the  type  are  to  be 
placed  only  those  marks  which  indicate  the  place  at  which 
error  has  been  made.  The  margin  is  reserved  for  marks 
denoting  the  nature  of  the  correction. 

Although  the  errors  which  are  possible  of  occurrence  in 
the  setting  of  type  are  numerous,  all,  or  nearly  all,  may 
be  brought  under  the  following  heads :  (1)  Insertion  of 
new  or  omitted  matter ;  (2)  striking-out ;  (3)  substitution ; 
(4)  transposition ;  (5)  inversion ;  (6)  spacing. 

The  errors  and, the  method  of  correcting  them  are  illus- 
trated in  the  accompanying  plate.  In  the  explanation  which 
follows,  the  numbers  which  stand  before  the  headings  of 
the  paragraphs  refer  to  the  corresponding  numbers  in  the 
plate. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CORRECTIONS. 
1.    Substitution  of  one  letter  for  another. 

In  the  type :  A  stroke  through  the  letter.  In  the  margin : 
The  letter  which  is  to  be  substituted  for  that  in  the  type, 
followed  by  a  slanting  line. 

The  slanting  line  serves  both  to  attract  the  printer's  eye  and  to  separate  one  letter 
or  word  from  another  in  case  two  or  more  corrections  are  made  in  the  same  line  of 
type. 

> 

2.   A  Letter  Inverted. 

In  the  type :  A  stroke  through  the  inverted  letter.  In  the 
margin:  The  inversion-sign. 


>  / 

/ 


Appendix  F.  205 

THOUGH  several  differing  opinions  exist  as  to 


the  individual  by  wrfom  the  art  of  printing  was 
first  discovered;   yet  all  authorities  concur  in 
admitting    Peter  Schoeffer   to  be  the  person3 
who  invented  cast  metal  types,  having  learned 
the  art  -e£  of  cutting  the  letters  from  the  Gu- 
s:/  tenbergs/  he  is  also  supposed  to  have  been 
6$   the  first  whoengraved  on  copper  plates.    The?/-/ 
following  testimony  is  preseved  in  the  family,  8  ^/ 
V  by  I/Jo.  l/Fred.  ^  Faustus,  ^of  ^Ascheffenburg : 
">| — |  i\'  Peter    Schoeffer,    of    Gernsheim,    perceiving 
»\y   his  master  Fausts  design,  and  being  himself 
"^  ^desirous  |  ardently]  to  improve  the  art,  found 
out    (by   the   good    providence  of  God)    the 
method  of  cutting  (incidendi)  the  characters 
in  a  matrix,  that  the  letters  might  easily  be 
5;/  singly  castl  instead  of   bieng  cut.      He    pri- 
«4j_  vately  cut  matrices\  for  the  whole  alphabet: 

Faust  was  so  pleased   with   the  contrivan 
^-""  /  /  A 

-^at  he  promised  .Peter  to  give  him  hjaronly    ^/- 

16  "  daughter   Christina    in    marriage,  ^c  promise 

which  he  soon  after  performed. 
I9^/    ^But    there    were    many^xlffficulties  at    first 

with  these  letters,  as/mere  had  been  before 
ao  ,    with  wooden  one>^the  metal  being  too  soft  3  /^    / 

to  support  th^force  of  the  im  pression:  but21^^ 

this   defect  was   soon    remedied,    by    mixing 

3  S  21  Ja 

a  sut^Cance  with  the  metal  which  sufficiently   ^. 
5  Q  hamened  it/ 

/cma  ^cwe/n  n&  4newea  ntA 
catf  fiom 


206  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

3.    Change  of  Type. 

(a)  Lower  case  to  capitals  (line  4).     In  the  type:  Three 
lines  under  the  words  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin :  The 
abbreviation  '  Caps.' 

Small  letters  are  called,  by  printers,  lower  case  letters ;  capitals  and  small  capitals, 
upper  case  letters.  A  change  from  upper  to  lower  case,  is  indicated  by  underscoring 
once  the  word  in  the  type  and  writing  the  abbreviation  '1.  c.'  in  the  margin.  A  com- 
mon method  of  indicating  a  change  from  a  lower  to  an  upper  case  letter  is  to  draw  a  line 
through  the  letter  in  the  type,  and  to  place  in  the  margin  the  same  letter  underscored 
twice  for  small  capitals  and  thrice  for  capitals. 

(b)  Lower  case  to  small  capitals  (line  11).     In  the  type: 
Two  lines  under  the  words  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin  : 
The  abbreviation  '  S.  Caps.' 

(c)  Roman  to  italics  (lines  21,  25).     In  the  type:   One 
line  under  the  word  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin:  The 
abbreviation  <  Ital.' 

(d)  Italic  to  Roman  (line  24).     In  the  type:   One  line 
under  the  word  to  be  changed.     In  the  margin :  The  abbre- 
viation '  Rom.' 

4.    Striking-out. 

In  the  type :  A  horizontal  stroke  through  the  word  which 
is  to  be  removed.  In  the  margin :  The  dele,  or  sign  of  omis- 
sion. 

The  dele  (a  Latin  imperative  meaning  *  destroy ')  is  made  in  a  variety  of  ways,  all 
resembling  in  some  degree  the  Greek  letter  5. 


5.    Change  of  Punctuation. 

(a)  Comma  to   colon   (line  7).     In  the  type:   A  stroke 
through  the  comma.     In  the  margin :  A  colon  followed  by  a 
slanting  stroke. 

(b)  Colon  to  comma  (line  17).     Same  as  (a). 

(c)  Comma  to  period  (line  29).     In  the  type:  A  stroke 
through  the  comma.     In  the  margin :  A  period  inclosed  in  a 
circle. 


Appendix  F.  207 

6.  Space  between   Words  increased. 

In  the  type :  A  caret  at  the  point  where  correction  is  to 
be  made.  In  the  margin :  A  double  cross. 

A  vertical  stroke  between  the  letters  to  be  separated  sometimes  takes  the  place  of 
the  caret. 

7.  Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Hyphen. 

In  the  type :  A  caret  at  the  point  where  correction  is  to 
be  made.  In  the  margin:  A  hyphen  between  slanting 
strokes. 

8.    Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Letter. 

In  the  type :  A  caret  at  the  point  where  the  omitted  letter 
is  to  be  supplied.  In  the  margin :  The  missing  letter  fol- 
lowed by  a  slanting  stroke. 

9.    Space  between  Words  diminished. 

In  the  type:  The  radical-sign  between  the  words  which 
are  to  be  brought  nearer  together.  In  the  margin:  The 
same  sign. 

Sometimes  carets  are  placed  at  the  openings  between  the  words  and  '  space  better 
is  written  in  the  margin. 

10.    Indenting  for  Paragraph. 

In  the  type :  A  caret  at  the  point  where  the  indentation  is 
to  be  made.  In  the  margin :  A  square. 

Other  marginal  signs  for  a  paragraph-indentation  are  the  following :  ^,  ] . 

11.    Insertion  of  an  Omitted  Apostrophe. 

In  the  type :  A  caret  at  the  point  where  the  apostrophe  is 
to  be  inserted.  In  the  margin:  An  apostrophe  in  an  in- 
verted caret. 

The  inverted  caret  serves  to  distinguish  the  apostrophe  from  the  comma.  For  the 
insertion  of  the  latter,  see  No.  5  (6).  Sometimes  an  inverted  caret  is  used  in  the  type 
as  well  as  in  the  margin. 

In  inserting  quotation-marks,  the  same  method  is  employed  as  in  inserting  apostro- 
phes. 


208  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

12.    Transposition. 

(a)  Transposing  words   (line  13).     In  the  type:   A  line 
passed  over  the  first  word  and  under  and  around  the  second. 
In  the  margin :  The  abbreviation  '  tr.? 

(b)  Transposing  letters  (line  17).     In  the  type:  A  line 
under  the  letters  to  be  transposed.     In  the  margin:  The 
abbreviation  <tr.' 

(c)  Changing  the  order  of  several  words  (line  28).     In 
the  type :  Numbers  placed  over  the  words  to  be  transposed, 
so  as  to  indicate  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  arranged. 
In  the  margin :  The  abbreviation  '  tr.' 

In  transposing  letters,  a  curved  line  is  sometimes  passed  above  the  first  and  below 
the  second.  When  it  is  desired  to  transfer  a  word  or  mark  of  punctuation  from  one 
place  to  another,  a  circle  is  thrown  about  the  word  or  mark,  and  a  line  carried  through 
the  type  (as  in  No.  15)  to'a  caret  at  the  point  where  the  insertion  is  to  be  made.  The 
marginal  sign  in  such  cases  is  the  same. 

13.    Restoring  a  Word  which  has  been  stricken  out. 

In  the  type :  A  line  of  dots  under  the  word.  In  the  mar- 
gin: The  Latin  word  stet  ((  Let  it  stand '). 


14.    Depressing  a  Quad. 

In  the  type:  A  horizontal  line  under  the  quad.  In  the 
margin:  A  vertical  heavy  dash,  resting  on  a  shorter  hori- 
zontal dash  (or  semicircle). 

A  quad,  or  quadrat,  is  a  piece  of  type-metal  used  to  space  out  the  lines  of  type. 
Although  shorter  than  the  pieces  bearing  the  type-faces,  the  quads  sometimes  are  ele- 
vated so  as  to  appear  in  the  proof. 


15.    Insertion  of  Omitted  Glauses  or  Sentences. 

In  the  type :  A  caret,  showing  the  point  at  which  the 
words  are   to   be  supplied.     In  the  margin:   The  omitted 


DIVERS: 

Appendix  F. 


clause  or  sentence,  from  which  is  drawn  a  line  to  the  caret 
in  the  type. 

When  the  omitted  passage  is  so  long  that  to  rewrite  it  in  the  margin  would  be  a  waste 
of  time,  the  printer  is  referred  to  the  original  manuscript.  In  such  case  a  caret  is  placed 
in  the  type  and  the  words  '  out,  see  copy,'  or  •  out,  s.  c.,'  are  written  in  the  margin.  In 
the  manuscript  the  omitted  words  should  be  inclosed  in  brackets. 


16.   Straightening  Crooked  Lines  of  Type. 

In  the  type:  The  depressed  words  or  letters  inclosed  in 
parallel  lines.  In  the  margin :  The  parallel  lines  extended 
into  the  margin. 

Sometimes  other  shorter  parallel  lines  are  placed  In  the  margin  opposite  those  in 
the  type. 


17.    Change  of  Font. 

In  the  type:  A  stroke  through  the  letter  or  word  to  be 
changed.  In  the  margin:  The  abbreviation  <w.  f.'  ('  wrong 
font7)- 

The  letter  P  in  line  20  is  blacker  than  the  other  capitals,  as  will  be  seen  by  compar- 
ing it  with  the  same  letter  in  line  4. 


18.    Two  Paragraphs  united  in  One. 

In  the  type:  A  curved  line  drawn  from  the  end  of  the 
first  paragraph  to  the  beginning  of  the  second.  In  the 
margin :  '  No  If .' 

In  the  margin  the  words  *  run  in  *  are  sometimes  used. 


19.    Insertion  of  a  Word. 

In  the  type:  A  caret  at  the  point  where  the  omission 
occurs.  In  the  margin :  The  omitted  word,  followed  by  a 
slanting  stroke. 


210  Paragrap  h  -  Writing . 


20.    Substitution  of  a  Perfect  for  a  Defective  Type. 

In  the  type:   A  cross  under   (or  through)  the  defective 
letter.     In  the  margin :  A  cross. 

21.    Uniting  the  Separated  Parts  of  a  Word. 

In  the  type:   Horizontal   curves  inclosing  the  separated 
parts.     In  the  margin :  Horizontal  curves. 


GENERAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

1.  In  cases  of  doubt,  strike  out  the  matter  to  be  corrected 
and  rewrite  it  in  the  margin  exactly  as  it  should  appear  in 
the  type. 

2.  The  logotypes  fi,  ffi,  are  used  instead  of  the  separate 
letters  fi,  ffi.     When  ae  is  desired  in  place  of  ae,  it  is  indi- 
cated by  a  horizontal  line  or  curve  above  the  two  letters. 

3.  The  following  errors  are  somewhat  difficult  of  detec- 
tion :   (a)  changes  of  font,  when  the  types  of  the  two  fonts 
are  much  alike;   (b)  inversion  of  s  and  x;   (c)  the  occur- 
rence  of   inverted   n;   u,   b,   and   p,   for   u,   n,   q,   and   d, 
respectively. 

(a)  Differences  in  fonts  can  be  learned  only  by  expe- 
rience.    The  principal  differences  are  in  the  shape  of  the 
letters,  the  thickness  or   blackness  of  the   lines,  and  the 
size  of  the  face. 

(b)  Inverted  s  and  x  may  be  detected  by  the  fact  that  the 
lower  part  of  these  letters  is  slightly  larger  than  the  upper 
part. 

(c)  The  main  differences  between  n  and  inverted  u,  b 
and   inverted   q,  d   and  inverted  p,  lie  in  the  small  pro- 
jections which  start  at  right  angles  from  the  sides  or  stems 
of  these  letters.     For  example,  in  n  the  projections  at  the 
bottom  of  the  letter  are  seen  on  both  sides  of  the  prongs  or 


Appendix  F.  211 

'legs.'  In  u  these  projections  are  seen  on  but  one  side. 
The  differences  in  the  other  pairs  of  letters  will  be  readily 
detected  upon  examination. 

4.  Other  inversions  for  which  it  is  well  to  be  watchful 
are  those  of  the  letter  o,  the  cipher,  the  period,  the  comma, 
and  the  colon. 

5.  The  spacing  of  the  punctuation  requires  some  care. 
Notice  that  the  comma  follows  immediately  the  preceding 
word,  but  is  separated  by  a  slight  space  from  the  word  that 
follows ;  that  the  semicolon  and  colon  stand  a  little  way  off 
from  the  preceding  word ;  that  the  period  is  followed  by  a 
considerably  greater  space  than  the  other  points. 

6.  Type  is  set  either  '  solid,'  that  is,  without   spacing 
between  the  lines  ;  or  '  leaded/  that  is,  with  the  lines  sepa- 
rated by  thin  strips  of  type-metal,  known  as  '  leads.'     When 
but  one  'lead'  is  used  between  each  pair  of  lines,  the  type 
is  said  to  be  '  single-leaded ' ;  when  two  e  leads '  are  used, 
the  type  is  said  to  be  'double-leaded.'     The  type  in  this 
book   is   single-leaded;   that  in  the  accompanying  plate  is 
double-leaded.     Errors  in   leading  are  of  two   kinds,    (a) 
omitting  leads,  and  (6)  inserting  them  where  they  are  not 
needed.     In  correcting  the  first  error  a  horizontal  caret  is 
placed  with  its  point  between  the  lines  of  type  which  are 
to  be  separated,  and  in  the  margin  at  the  opening  of  the 
caret  is  written  the  word  'lead.'     When  a  lead  has  been 
unnecessarily  used,  the  same  sign  is  inserted  in  the  type 
and  'no  lead'  is  written  in  the  margin. 

7.  Words  may  be  carried  up  or  down,  to  the  right  or  left, 
by  means  of  brackets  placed  about  the  words  and  repeated 
in  the  margin.     The  significance  of  the  brackets  is  as  fol- 
lows :  ]  means  '  carry  to  the  right ; '  [  means  '  carry  to  the 
left ' ;  , — ,  means  '  move  up ' ;  , ,  means  '  move  down.' 

8.  Corrections  are  made  in  the  margin  nearest  which  they 
occur.     If  the  corrections  are  numerous,  it  is  well  to  draw 
lines  from  the  marks  in  the  type  to  those  in  the  margin. 


212  Paragrap  h  -  Writing. 

APPENDIX   G. 
1. 

GENERAL  REFERENCE  LIST. 

The   student  should  learn  how  to  consult  and  use  the 
following  in  investigating  a  subject. 

1.  Poole's  Index  of  Magazine  Literature.     This  consists 
of  classified  lists  of  references  to  magazine  articles  on  all 
subjects,  arranged  alphabetically.      It  is  supplemented  by 
yearly  issues,  and  a  new  volume  is  published  at  intervals 
of  several  years. 

2.  Encyclopedias,  notably  the   Britannica,  usually  give 
at  the  close  of  each  important  article  a  list  of  authorities 
that    may   be    consulted   in   further  investigation   of  the 
subject. 

3.  Card  Catalogues.     Almost  every  library  of  consider- 
able size  is  provided  with  a  card  catalogue  both  of  subjects 
and  of  authors. 

4.  References   for    Literary   Workers,    by    H.    Matson. 
This  book  contains  classified  lists  of  references  to  subjects 
in  history,  biography,  politics,  literature,  science,  etc.     It 
should  be  in  every  reference  library.     Especially  valuable 
to  debaters. 

5.  A  Manual  of  Historical  Literature,  by  C.  K.  Adams. 
Especially  valuable  in  estimating  the  weight  of  a  historian's 
statements. 

6.  Lalor's  Cyclopedia  of  Political  Science  gives  special 
articles  on  subjects  in  political  science,  political  economy, 
and  United  States  History,  and  at  the  close  of  each  article 
a  valuable  bibliography. 

7.  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopedia  is  valuable  for  recent 
history  and  accounts  of  recent  progress  in  science. 

8.  Appleton's  Cyclopedia  of  American  Biography. 


Appendix  Gr  2.  213 

9.  The  Review  of  Reviews  and  the  Literary  Digest 
devote  much  space  to  classified  lists  of  important  magazine 
articles  of  the  current  month.  Public  Opinion  is  made  up 
mainly  of  selections  from  newspapers. 

10.  Allibone's  Dictionary  of  Authors. 

11.  Providence  Library  Reference  Lists. 

12.  Old  South  Leaflets. 

13.  Brewer's  Reader's  Handbook. 

14.  Brewer's  Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fable. 

15.  British  Year-Book  and  Companion. 

16.  Bowker  and  Iles's  The  Reader's  Guide  in  Economic, 
Social,  and  Political  Science. 

17.  J.  F.    Sargent's    Reading  for  the   Young   (Boston: 
1890). 

18.  Descriptive  Index  of  Current  Engineering  Literature 
(Chicago:  1892). 

19.  Galloupe's  General  Index  to  Engineering  Periodicals 
(Boston:  1888,1892). 

The  United  States  Census  Reports  and  the  Circulars  of 
Information  issued  by  the  National  Board  of  Education  can 
be  used  to  good  effect  when  they  are  available.  A  Subject- 
Index  of  the  latter  was  issued  in  1891. 

2. 

A   CLASSIFIED   LIST   OF  ESSAY   SUBJECTS. 
English  Language  and  Literature. 

1.  Dickens  as  a  reformer. 

2.  What  part  of  his  course  should  a  student  devote  to 
English  ? 

3.  Arguments  for  spelling-reform. 

4.  Compare  Tennyson's  two  poems  on  Locksley  Hall. 

5.  A  history  of  the  office  of  Poet-Laureate. 

6.  Should  the  office  of  Poet-Laureate  be  abolished  ? 


214  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

7.  The  problems  in  the  Marble  Faun. 

8.  The  late  Cardinal  Newman  as  a  literary  man. 

9.  Lowell's  essay  on  Democracy. 

10.  What  is  the  problem  discussed  in  Elsie  Venner  ? 

11.  Dr.  Johnson's   strength   and   weakness   as   a   prose 
writer. 

12.  What   are   the  peculiar  characteristics  of  Bryant's 
poetry  ? 

13.  Justify  Whittier's  title  "  The  Poet  of  Freedom." 

14.  Dr.  Holmes's  "  Story  of  Iris  "  —  its  meaning. 

15.  Richard  III.  in  Shakespeare  and  in  history. 

16.  Shy  lock  vs.  Antonio  —  a  plea  for  Shylock. 

17.  Shelley's  place  in  English  Poetry. 

18.  Goldsmith's    Parson    (Deserted   Village)    compared 
with  Chaucer's.    , 

19.  Problems    in    Hawthorne's    House    of    the    Seven 
Gables. 

20.  The  Book  of  Job  treated  as  a  tragedy. 

21.  Emerson's  Essay  on  Manners  —  is    the   theory  ade- 
quate ? 

22.  Were  Matthew  Arnold's  criticisms  on  America  just  ? 

23.  Is  Taine's  estimate  of  the  influence  of  the  Puritans 
on  literature  correct  ? 

24.  Literary  characteristics  of  Dr.  Watts's  hymns. 

2$.    Compare  Emerson's  idea  of  Napoleon  with  Taine's. 

26.  The  effect  of  Methodism  on  eighteenth  century  lit- 
erature. 

27.  Account  for  the  present  neglect  of  Paradise  Lost, 
by  readers. 

28.  Dr.  Johnson's  estimate  of  Dryden. 

29.  Influence  of  Lowell's  Biglow  Papers. 

30.  A  study  of  words  ending  in  -able  or  -ible. 

31.  Compare   Shakespeare's    Caesar  with   the   Caesar   of 
history. 

32.  What  is  the  meaning  of  Coleridge's  Ancient  Mariner  ? 


Appendix  6r  2.  215 

33.  A  comparison  of  Tennyson's  Ulysses  and  Guinevere. 

34.  A  comparison  of  Tennyson's  Ulysses  and  Northern 
Farmer. 

35.  Is  the  English  language  likely  to  become  universal  ? 

36.  The  Bacon-Shakespeare  controversy. 

37.  Richelieu  in  Bulwer  and  in  history. 

38.  Fashions  in  literature. 

39.  The  Bible  in  Tennyson. 

40.  Pathos  in  Dickens. 

41.  Tennyson's  earlier  and  later  poetry  compared. 

42.  Spelling-reform. 

43.  Some  over-worked  words. 

44.  Rhythm  in  prose. 

45.  The  use  of  slang. 

46.  Cant  English  expressions. 

47.  Influence  of  the  so-called  religious  novel. 

48.  The  Brook  Farm  experiment. 

49.  Pronunciation  of  English  words. 

50.  What  classes  speak  the  best  English  ? 

51.  A  study  of  the  word  "  reliable." 

52.  Defective  rhymes  in  English  verse. 

53.  Some  Americanisms  examined. 

54.  Crime  in  standard  fiction. 

55.  Henrik  Ibsen's  influence  in  America. 

56.  Voltaire  on  Shakespeare. 

57.  The  tragedy  of  Lear. 

58.  Dickens  the  people's  novelist. 

59.  The  work  of  Amelia  B.  Edwards. 

60.  The  Alhambra. 

61.  Famous  literary  clubs  at  the  English  Universities. 

62.  Early  forms  of  the  drama  in  England. 

63.  The  England  of  Chaucer. 

64.  Influence  of  the  Puritans  on  literature. 

65.  Milton's  religious  views. 

66.  Character  of  Thackeray's  Becky  Sharp. 


216  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

67.  Bryant's  and  Walt  Whitman's  Americanism. 

68.  Irving  —  a  typical  literary  man. 

69.  Historical  basis  of  Shakespeare's  Macbeth. 

70.  Scott's  reason  for  ceasing  to  write  poetry. 

71.  Causes  of  dramatic  decline  in  the  seventeenth  century. 

72.  Influence  of  patrons  on  literature. 

73.  Coffee-house  criticisms  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

74.  Theocritus  in  Tennyson. 

75.  Seventeenth  century  satire. 

76.  Walt  Whitman's  place  in  American  poetry. 

77.  American  literature  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

78.  Tennyson  as  a  dramatist. 

79.  Lanier's  theory  of  English  verse. 

80.  The  lesson  of  Browning's  Grammarian's  Funeral. 

81.  Carlyle's  estimate  of  Coleridge. 

82.  Is  the  highest  type  of  poetry  religious  ? 

83.  Dramas  to  be  read  and  dramas  to  be  acted. 

84.  Distinguishing  features  of  an  epic. 

85.  Distinguishing  features  of  a  drama. 

86.  Distinguishing  features  of  a  lyric. 

87.  Novel  and  romance  compared. 

88.  Idealism  and  realism  compared. 

89.  Classicism  and  romanticism. 

90.  The  three  unities. 

91.  Burke's  views  on  the  American  and  French  revolu- 
tions contrasted. 

92.  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetic  diction. 

93.  The  true  function  of  criticism. 

94.  What  principles  of  literary  criticism  have  we  ? 

95.  Was  Pope  a  poet  in  the  true  sense  ? 

96.  Is  Stedman's  definition  of  poetry  adequate  ? 

97.  A  study  of  prefaces  and  their  peculiarities. 

98.  Shakespeare's  fools. 

99.  Ruskin's  revision  of  Modern  Painters  —  a  study  in 
rhetoric. 


Appendix  Q-  2.  217 

100.  Should  a  novel  teach  something  ? 

101.  Does    novel-reading    lead    to    inaction    and    will- 
paralysis  ? 

102.  Discuss  Poe's  arguments  for  the  short  story. 

103.  Poe  and  Longfellow. 

104.  How  Poe  hoaxed  the  American  people. 

105.  Poe's  account  of  the  composition  of  the  Raven. 

106.  Literary  horrors. 

107.  Characteristics  of  current  magazine  poetry. 

108.  An  examination  of  Stedrnan's  Ariel. 

109.  The  story  of  Chatterton. 

110.  Characteristics  of  Maurice  Thompson's  poetry. 

111.  Edith  Thomas  as  a  poetess. 

112.  The  dialect  poem  and  its  rank. 

113.  James  Whitcomb  Eiley. 

114.  Military  men  as  writers. 

115.  Mark  Twain  as  a  representative  humorist. 

116.  Philip  Freneau  —  the  poet  of  the  Revolution. 

117.  Celebrated  literary  friendships. 

118.  The  quarrels  of  writers. 

119.  Beginnings  of  English  fiction. 

120.  English  writers  as  reformers. 

121.  Charles  Brockden  Brown  as  a  novelist. 

122.  Differences  between  written  and  spoken  English. 

123.  Causes  of  the  Italian  Renaissance. 

124.  Influence  of  the  Revival  of  Learning. 

125.  Was  Hamlet  really  mad  ? 

126.  Has  fiction  been  more  of  a  good  than  an  evil  ? 

127.  Cooper's  rank  as  a  novelist. 

128.  Lowell  and  Holmes  compared  as  humorists. 

129.  Shakespeare's  borrowings. 

130.  Classic  forms  in  modern  literature. 

131.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes  —  the  man  as  we  know  him 
through  his  writings. 


218  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Modern  Languages  and  Literatures. 

1.  An  outline  of  Hermann  and  Dorothea. 

2.  The  legend  of  William  Tell. 

3.  A  sketch  of  one  of  Paul  Heyse's  novels. 

4.  The  Troubadours  and  Minnesingers. 

5.  Theories  of  the  Romantic  School  in  France. 

6.  What  has  been  Voltaire's  influence  ? 

7.  Schiller's    Mary    Stuart    compared   with    the    Mary 
Stuart  of  history. 

8.  Influence   of    the    Reformation    on    German    litera- 
ture. 

9.  The  French  Acadenry. 

10.  Influence  of  literature  in  bringing  about  the  unifica- 
tion of  Germany.  x 

11.  Influence    of    the    Revolution    on    French    litera- 
ture. 

12.  Influence  of  German  literature  upon  English  litera- 
ture since  Goethe's  time. 

13.  French  theories  of  realism. 

14.  The  influence  of  Heinrich  Heine. 

15.  The  morality  of  Moliere's  plays. 

16.  Is  Rousseau  the  father  of  modern  socialism  ? 

17.  The  meeting  of  the  two  queens  in  Maria  Stuart. 

18.  Goethe's   indifference   to   German   liberation  —  how 
explained  ? 

19.  The  growth  of  the  Faust-legend. 

20.  Schiller  as  a  critic. 

21.  Marlowe's  Dr.  Faustus  and  Goethe's  Faust  compared 
as  characters. 

22.  Recent  movements  in  German  literature. 

23.  French  and  German  newspapers. 

24.  German  folk-poetry. 


Appendix  Gr  2.  219 

The  Classics. 

1.  The  necessity  of  a  classical  education. 

2.  Effect  of  the  elective  system  upon  classical  study. 

3.  The  arts  of  the  Athenians.     (Vide  Plutarch's  Peri- 
cles.) 

4.  Plutarch's  estimate  of  Pericles  compared  with  that 
of  Thucydides. 

5.  Theories  as  to  the  authorship  of  the  Homeric  poems. 

6.  Mommsen's  characterization  of  Julius  Caesar. 

7.  Contrast  the  historians  Thucydides  and  Herodotus. 

8.  The  defence  of  Socrates  before  his  judges. 

9.  The  value  of  the  Socratic  method. 

10.  Discuss  Horace's  view  of  life. 

11.  Effect  of  the  satirists  upon  Roman  morals. 

12.  Describe  a  Roman  theatre. 

13.  Can  Cicero  be  considered  a  Stoic  ? 

14.  Reasons  for  the  tardy  development  of  Attic  oratory. 

15.  The  best  method  of  pronouncing  Latin. 

16.  Value  and  defects  of  Ostracism. 

17.  Describe  a  Greek  theatre. 

18.  Ideas  of  the  Greeks  on  education. 

19.  Rome  as  a  civilizer  of  her  conquerors. 

20.  Slavery  as  a  Roman  institution. 

21.  The  education  of  a  Greek  boy. 

22.  The  education  of  a  Roman  boy. 

23.  Influence  of  conquest  on  Roman  literature. 

24.  The  collegia  poetarum. 

25.  Influence  of  Roman  philosophy  on  our  views  of  life. 

26.  Influence  of  Cicero  on  modern  morals. 

27.  Schliemann's  work. 

28.  Is  the  story  of  the  Trojan  war  based  on  fact  ? 

29.  Woman  in  Greece  and  in  Rome. 

30.  The  moral  attitude  of  Achilles. 

31.  Greek  ideas  of  a  future  life. 


220  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

32.  A  Roman  banquet  described. 

33.  Greek  use  of  the  three  unities. 

34.  Compare  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  family. 

35.  Results  of  the  battle  of  Marathon. 

36.  Contribution  of  Greece  to  civilization. 

37.  Greek  and  Roman  influence  compared. 

38.  Influence  of  the  classics  on  the  English  language. 

39.  The  Roman  element  in  civilization. 

40.  Caesar  as  a  statesman. 

41.  Christianity  in  the  Roman  Empire. 

42.  The  first  Christian  emperor  of  Rome. 

43.  What  did  the  Stoics  believe  ? 

44.  What  did  the  Epicureans  believe  ? 

45.  The  JEneid  as  a  religious  poem. 

46.  Virgil  as  a  vpoet  of  nature. 

History,  Economics,  and  Politics. 

1.  Results  of  the  Pan-American  Congress. 

2.  The  Federal  control  of  railways. 

3.  International  copyright. 

4.  Recent  political  experiments  in  Japan. 

5.  Pauperism. 

6.  The  Australian  ballot  system. 

7.  Waste  by  fire. 

8.  Municipal  misgovernment. 

9.  Re-establishment  of  guilds. 

10.  Uses  of  royalty  in  England. 

11.  The  anti-poverty  movement. 

12.  Ought  Nevada  to  have  been  made  a  State  ? 

13.  Influence  of  the  cabinet  on  congress. 

14.  Evils  attending  our  labor-saving  machinery. 

15.  Strikes  —  how  far  beneficial  ? 

16.  Pardoning  power  of  state  governors. 

17.  The  original  package  decision. 


Appendix  Gr  2.  221 

18.  Benefits  of  historical  study. 

19.  Advantages  of  the  World's  Fair  at  Chicago. 

20.  Defects  of  the  present  electoral  system  in  the  United 
States. 

21.  The  policy  of  the  present  emperor  of  Germany. 

22.  Powers  of  the  speaker  of  the  national  house  of  repre- 
sentatives. 

23.  What  is  reciprocity  ? 

24.  The  judicial  work  of  John  Marshall. 

25.  How  does  public  opinion  rule  in  the  United  States  ? 

26.  Should  the  presidential  term  be  lengthened  ? 

27.  Should  secret  sessions  of  the  senate  be  abolished  ? 

28.  Hamilton  as  a  financier. 

29.  The  confederation  in  Australia. 

30.  Ought  the  Governor  of  Ohio  to  have  the  veto  power  ? 

31.  The  Know-Nothing  Party. 

32.  How  far  may  our  government  wisely  go  in  restrict- 
ing immigration  ? 

33.  Early  English  law  courts. 

34.  Effect  of  the  Crusades  on  England. 

35.  Origin  of  Parliament. 

36.  Effect  of  maritime  discoveries  on  England. 

37.  Is  Nationalism  practicable?     (Read  Looking  Back- 
ward. ) 

38.  Napoleon  as  an  exile. 

39.  Committee  government  in  Congress. 

40.  Railway  pools. 

41.  Socialistic  tendencies  in  the  United  States. 

42.  Federal  supervision  of  elections. 

43.  Alaska's  race  problem. 

44.  The  eight-hour  question. 

45.  Gladstone's  treatment  of  Gordon. 

46.  Fallacies  of  Henry  George. 

47.  A  southern  view  of  the  Negro  problem. 

48.  Spread  of  Mormonism. 


222  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

49.  Tax  reform. 

50.  Prohibition  a  reducer  of  crime. 

51.  Should  fortunes  be  limited  by  law  ? 

52.  Work  of  the  Federal  court  of  claims. 

53.  Probability  of  the  abolition  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

54.  Effect  of  Bismarck's  retirement. 

55.  What  did  the  Salisbury  ministry  accomplish  ? 

56.  Pensions  in  the  United  States. 

57.  Increase  of  Federal  powers  in  the  United  States  since 
1865. 

58.  Rise  of  the  House  of  Commons. 

59.  The  present  status  of  Home  Rule. 

60.  A  government  postal  telegraph. 

61.  The  fisheries  dispute. 

62.  Lynch  lawv  and  law  reform. 

63.  Municipal  should  be  separated  from  general  elections. 

64.  An  American  apprentice-system. 

65.  The  saloon  in  politics. 

66.  The  work  of  John  Brown. 

67.  Our  methods  of  charity. 

68.  Reform  of  local  taxation. 

69.  Influence  of  the  independent  in  politics. 

70.  Evils  of  competition. 

71.  Is  prohibition  rightfully  a  national  issue  ? 

72.  Should  trusts  be  suppressed  ? 

73.  Reform  in  prison  management. 

74.  The  work  of  Howard  the  philanthropist. 

75.  The  work  of  Wilberforce. 

76.  Ex-presidents  —  United  States  Senators  for  life. 

77.  Judges  —  elected  or  appointed  ? 

78.  Co-operation  tried  by  experience. 

79.  Legal-tender  decisions. 

80.  The  ethics  of  boycotting. 

81.  Power  to  veto  items  in  appropriation  bills. 

82.  Causes  of  decline  in  American  ship-building. 


Appendix  G  2.  223 

83.  Should  not  church  property  be  taxed  ? 

84.  Relation  of  railways  to  business. 

85.  Black-listing  —  can  it  be  defended  ? 

86.  Irrigation  in  the  United  States. 

87.  Reasons  for  private  ownership  of  land. 

88.  Origin  and  brief  history  of  English  trades  unions. 

89.  The  story  of  Tammany  Hall. 

90.  Local  government  in  Japan. 

91.  Problems  involved  in  the  annexation  of  Canada. 

92.  Recent  history-making  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

93.  American  political  ideas  in  Japan. 

94.  The  Farmers'  Alliance  movement. 

95.  The  three  great  strikes  of  1892  —  their  lesson. 

96.  The  problem  of  the  unemployed. 

97.  The  progress  of  civil  service  reform. 

98.  What  does  state  socialism  include  ? 

99.  The  Newfoundland  fisheries  dispute. 

100.  How  woman  suffrage  has  worked  in  Wyoming. 

101.  The  United  States  Navy  —  its  present  condition. 

102.  Character  of  William  the  Conqueror. 

103.  Influence  and  work  of  Savonarola. 

104.  Sherman  as  a  financier. 

105.  Moral  aspects  of  tariff  legislation. 

106.  Our  Anglo-Saxon  ancestors. 

107.  The  story  of  Bulgaria. 

108.  Influence  of  protective  duties  on  wages  of  labor. 

109.  The  infant  industry  argument. 

110.  The  '  tariff  for  revenue  only  '  idea. 

111.  Is  free  trade  possible  in  America  at  present  ? 

112.  Shall  the  production  of  raw  materials  or  of  finished 
products  be  encouraged  ? 

113.  Influence  of  profit-sharing  on  the  sharers. 

114.  Canals  vs.  railways. 

115.  What  is  the  argument  of  the  greenbacker  ? 

_..     116.  Does  labor-saving  machinery  drive  men  out  of  work  ? 


224  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

117.  Labor-unions  as  social  centres. 

118.  The  history  of  the  interstate  commerce  commission. 

119.  The  interstate  commerce  law. 

120.  What  determines  the  value  of  inconvertible  paper 
currency  ? 

121.  Relation  of  money  supply  to  rate  of  interest. 

122.  Is  pooling  really  an  evil,  and  ought  it  to  be  for- 
bidden ? 

123.  Are  railway  wars  an  ultimate  benefit  to  the  people  ? 

124.  Has  there  been  an  excess  of  railroad  building  ? 

125.  Is  suffrage  correctly  regarded  as  a  natural  right  ? 

126.  Are  government  or  national  bank  notes  preferable  ? 

127.  Should  the  government  loan  money  to  farmers? 

128.  Does   Henry  George  state   Malthus's  doctrine  cor- 
rectly ? 

129.  What  part  should  government  have  in  charity  ? 

130.  Duties  of  cities  in  regard  to  sanitation. 

131.  The  Dawes  Indian  severalty  bill  and  its  results. 

132.  The  industrial  status  of  woman. 

133.  The  'free  western  land'  alternative  for  discontented 
labor. 

134.  Does  the  accumulation  of  wealth  increase  poverty  ? 

135.  Are  the  rich  growing  richer  and  the  poor  poorer  ? 

136.  Winsor's  estimate  of  Columbus. 

137.  Our  recent  behavior  towards  Chile  —  was  it  right  ? 

138.  The  Mexican  war  —  was  it  a  righteous  war  ? 

139.  Treatment  of  resident  Chinese  —  right  ? 

140.  Was  the  execution  of  the  Salem  witches  justifiable? 

141.  The  Monroe  Doctrine  —  is  it  still  effective  ? 

142.  Policies  of  James  I.  and  Charles  I.  in  suppressing 
Puritans. 

143.  Guizot's  and  Balmes's  estimate  of  the  Reformation 
compared. 

144.  A  description  of  the  machinery  of  government  in 
Germany. 


Appendix  G  2.  225 

145.  '  Initiative  '  and  <  referendum'  in  Swiss  government. 

146.  The  communes  of  France  and  the  free  cities  of  Italy 
compared. 

147.  Effect  of  the  French  Revolution  on  Switzerland. 

148.  Differences  between  the  Reformation  in  Germany 
and  that  in  England. 

149.  A  medieval  free  city. 

150.  The  Hanseatic  league  and  its  influence. 

151.  Are  the  laws  of  Russia  against  Jews  justifiable  ? 

152.  The  Michigan  plan  of  electing  Presidential  electors. 

153.  History  of  the  rise  of  nominating  conventions. 

154.  The  rise  of  the  Whig  party  and  its  make-up. 

155.  Motive  of  the  Crusades. 

156.  The  Children's  Crusade. 

157.  Results  of  the  Crusades. 

158.  The  good  and  evil  in  chivalry. 

159.  Monasticism  in  its  results  on  society. 

160.  Results  of  Feudalism  on  society. 

161.  Influence  of  early  Christianity. 

162.  Results  of  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 

163.  Intellectual  results  of  Alexander's  conquests. 

164.  Constitution  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

165.  England's  colonial  policy. 

166.  Was  the  Reformation  mainly  a  religious  movement  ? 

167.  Execution  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots. 

168.  Cromwell's  Protectorate  —  justifiable  ? 

169.  Execution  of  Charles  I.  —  justifiable  ? 

170.  Causes  of  the  panic  of  1893. 

171.  Causes  of  the  French  Revolution. 

172.  Napoleon's  place  in  history. 

173.  Emerson's  estimate  of  Napoleon. 

174.  Puritans,  Quakers,  and  Witches. 

175.  Banishment  of  Roger  Williams  ^-justifiable  ? 

176.  Beechers  work  for  the  Union. 

177.  Jackson's  idea  of  the  President's  responsibility. 


226  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

178.  Jackson  and  Lincoln  —  points  of  similarity. 

179.  Was  John  Brown's  raid  justifiable  ? 

180.  Howard  as  a  philanthropist. 

181.  The  work  of  Bismarck. 

182.  The  work  of  Gladstone. 

183.  William  Lloyd  Garrison. 

184.  Ignatius  Loyola. 

185.  International  copyright. 

186.  Dangers  of  unrestricted  immigration. 

187.  Did  Warren  Hastings  deserve  impeachment  ? 

188.  Did  Andrew  Johnson  deserve  impeachment  ? 

189.  What  is  known  about  Alfred  the  Great  ? 

190.  The   English  government   and   the    United   States 
government  compared. 

191.  Evils  of  party  government. 

192.  Is  the  existence  of  parties  necessary? 

193.  Should  party  lines  be  drawn  in  state  elections  ? 

194.  Should  party  lines  fye  drawn  in  municipal  elections  ? 

195.  Specialization  in  politics. 

196.  Should  partisan  considerations  have  weight  in  vot- 
ing for  judges  ? 

197.  Ought  the  negro  to  have  been  enfranchised  ? 

198.  Should    the    duty    of    suffrage    be    imposed    upon 
women  ? 

199.  Are  there  dangers  from  continued  centralization  in 
our  Federal  government  ? 

200.  Should  the  President  be  elected  by  popular  vote  ? 

201.  Should  cabinet  officers  have  seats  in  Congress  ? 

202.  Should  we  require  residence  in  a  district  to  make  a 
man  eligible  to  Congress  ? 

203.  Should  unanimity  be  required  of  juries  in  all  cases  ? 

204.  Ought  capital  punishment  to  be  abolished  ? 

205.  Should  oaths  be  administered  to  witnesses  in  court  ? 

206.  Should  there  be  a  national  bankrupt  law  ?. 

207.  Is  nihilism  in  Russia  justifiable? 


Appendix  Gr  2.  227 

208.  Has  the  aristocracy  been  a  benefit  to  England  ? 

209.  Has  English  rule  been  a  benefit  to  India  ? 

210.  Does  protection  protect  ? 

211.  Is  bimetallism  logical  ? 

212.  Is  the  tendency  to  industrial  consolidation  deplor- 
able ? 

213.  Are  trusts  of  any  benefit  to  the  country  ? 

214.  Has  co-operation  in  production  been  successful  ? 

215.  Should  usury  laws  be  repealed  ? 

216.  Should  there  be  uniform  requirements  for  voting  in 
the  several  States  ? 

217.  Is  Froude's  characterization  of  Henry  VIII.  correct  ? 

218.  Was    Charlotte   Corday    justifiable    in    murdering 
Marat  ? 

219.  Did  Mohammed  help  or  hinder  civilization  ? 

220.  Was  Russia's  war  on  Turkey  in  1877  justifiable  ? 

221.  Compare  Magna  Charta  and  the  Declaration  of  In- 
dependence. 

222.  Were  Germany's  impositions  upon  France,  in  1871, 
just  ? 

223.  Did  Burr  aim  at  an  independent  empire  ? 

224.  Was  the  Underground  Railway  morally  right? 

225.  Is  lynching  ever  right  ? 

226.  Was  Henry  of  Navarre  justified  in  his  change  of 
religion  ? 

227.  Was  it  right  to  pardon  Jefferson  Davis  ? 

228.  Was  Webster's  7th  of  March  speech  worthy  of  him  ? 

229.  Is  further  acquisition  of  territory  by  the  United 
States  desirable  ? 

230.  Should  drunkenness  be  considered  an  extenuation 
of  crime  ? 

231.  Should  failure  to  vote  take  away  the  right  to  vote  ? 

232.  Should  convict  labor  compete  with  labor  in  general  ? 

233.  The  political  education  of  the  country  voter. 

234.  The  predecessors  of  Columbus. 


228  Paragraph   Writing. 

235.  How  banks  are  conducted. 

236.  Characteristics  of  the  American  Indians  as  observed 
by  the  first  colonists. 

Education. 

1.  Ought  the  college  course  to  be  shortened  ? 

2.  City  school  systems. 

3.  The  object  of  a  university. 

4.  Benefits  of  college  athletics. 

5.  Novel-reading  and  the  school. 

6.  Methods  of  college  discipline. 

7.  The  Y.  M.  C.  A.  in  college  life. 

8.  The  German  gymnasium. 

9.  What  is  a  liberal  education  ? 

10.  A  defence  of  state  universities. 

11.  Secret  societies  in  college. 

12.  Industrial  education  for  the  negro. 

13.  The  place  of  manual  training  in  higher  education. 

14.  Should  academic  degrees  be  abolished  ? 

15.  Theories  of  children's  reading. 

16.  Value  of  summer  schools. 
17..  Evils  of  examinations. 
IS.MThe  work  of  Chautauqua. 

19.  Should  the  State  supervise  private  schools  ? 

20.  Arguments  for  or  against  compulsory  chapel. 

21.  Advantages  of  coeducation. 

22.  Is  over-education  possible  ? 

23.  University  extension. 

24.  Books  that  help  and  books  that  hinder. 

25.  Flashy  literature. 

26.  Education  of  women. 

27.  Future  of  the  country  college. 

28.  Is  the  city  or  the  village  the  ideal  location  for  a 
college  ? 


Appendix  Gr  2.  229 

29.  A  professorship  of  reading. 

30.  Advantages  of  foreign  study. 

31.  The  place  of  Bible  study  in  a  course  of  literature. 

32.  Christianity  and  popular  education. 

33.  Indian  education. 

34.  The  place  of  physical  culture  in  education. 

35.  Value  of  literary  societies. 

36.  Some  hints  on  the  use  of  books. 

37.  How  to  use  a  card-catalogue. 

38.  The  study  of  English  in  the  schools. 

39.  Teacher  and  community. 

40.  Methods  of  memory-training. 

41.  Value  of  instruction  by  lecture. 

42.  Manners  in  schools. 

43.  College  life  for  women. 

44.  Should  intercollegiate  games  be  abolished  ? 

45.  Practical  value  of  a  liberal  education. 

46.  The  old  university  at  Anolszekein. 

47.  Sympathy  in  the  school-room. 

48.  Religious  training  in  the  schools. 

49.  A  model  high  school. 

50.  Can  the   primary  and   grammar   school   courses   be 
shortened  ? 

51.  The  American  school  at  Athens. 

52.  Influence  of  vocal  training  on  health. 

53.  The  value  of  music  as  a  school  study. 

54.  Relation  of  education  to  crime. 

55.  The  best  education  for  women. 

56.  Has  manual  training  properly  a  place  in  the  univer- 
sity ? 

57.  How  may  morality  best  be  taught  in  the  schools  ? 

58.  Is  specialism  begun  too  early  in  our  schools  and  col- 
leges ? 

59.  Student  life  in  the  University  of  Paris  in  the  four- 
teenth century. 


230  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

60.  The  value  of  cooking  and  sewing  as  school  studies. 

61.  Are  large  educational  endowments  beneficial  to  soci- 
ety ? 

62.  Can  the  schools  be  expected  to  do  more  than  train 
the  mind  ? 

63.  Is  training  or  information  the  object  of  education  ? 

64.  Is   there  a  distinction  between   culture  studies  and 
other  studies  ? 

65.  Can  an  ordinary  college  course  of  study,  not  supple- 
mented by  reading,  furnish  an  adequate  education  ? 

66.  Are  there  too  many  colleges  ? 

67.  Should  a  university  undertake  the  moral  guidance  of 
students  ? 

68.  Should  gymnastics  be  compulsory  in  college  ? 

69.  Should   attendance  at  classes  in  college  be  compul- 
sory ? 

70.  Should  prospective  ministers  receive  pecuniary  aid 
from  college  funds  ? 

71.  Is  ignorance  productive  of  crime? 

72.  Are  systems  of  self-government  by  college  students 
advisable  ? 

73.  Are  examinations  a  true  test  of  scholarship  ? 

74.  Should  the  study  of   Greek  and  Latin  be  compul- 
sory ? 

75.  The  school  master  of  forty  years  ago. 


The  Sciences  generally. 

1.  Results  of  Arctic  exploration. 

2.  The  cliff-dwellers. 

3.  The  mound-builders. 

4.  Food  adulteration. 

5.  Possible  abuses  of  hypnotic  power. 

6.  Natural  gas  and  its  uses. 

7.  The  arrangement  of  leaves  on  the  stems  of  plants. 


Appendix  Gr  2.  231 

8.  To  what  extent  and  for  what  purpose   should  the 
general  student  study  physiology? 

9.  On  what  theory  is  vivisection  justified  ? 

10.  Use  of  the  study  of  anatomy  to  the  general  student. 

11.  Advances  in  the  science  of  chemistry  since  1820. 

12.  The  manufacture  and  properties  of  illuminating  gas. 

13.  Needed  improvements  in  electric  lighting. 

14.  Polar  expeditions. 

15.  Military  ballooning. 

16.  Action  of  alcohol  on  the  nervous  system. 

17.  Conditions  producing  cyclones. 

18.  Kace  types  in  America. 

19.  Weather  wisdom. 

20.  The  law  of  conservation  of  energy. 

21.  Modes  of  evolution. 

22.  Correlation  of  forces. 

23.  Cerebral  localization. 

24.  Problem  of  the  soaring  birds. 

25.  The  Thomson-Helmholz  theory  of  matter. 

26.  Instinct  and  reason. 

27.  The  Scientific  Congress  of  the  Catholics. 

28.  The  radiation  of  the  sun's  heat. 

29.  Science  and  miracles. 

30.  The  economy  of  nature  in  the  forest. 

31.  What  is  the  germ  theory  ? 

32.  Uses  of  microscopes. 

33.  How  cannon  fire-crackers  are  made. 

34.  Theories  of  the  cause  of  geysers. 

35.  Peat-bogs. 

36.  Is  phrenology  a  science  ? 

37.  Science  and  the  negro  problem. 

38.  Dangers  of  hypnotism. 

39.  Value  of  hypnotism  to  medical  science. 

40.  Effect  of  climate  on  race  types. 

41.  Artificial  methods  of  producing  fire. 


232  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

42.  How   some   rare  elements    were   discovered   by  the 
spectroscope. 

43.  History  of  dynamite  manufacture. 

44.  Influence  of  Sir  Humphrey  Davy. 

45.  The  aniline  color  industry. 

46.  The  atomic  theory. 

47.  Industries  based  on  fermentation. 

48.  Diamond  cutting. 

49.  Life  and  work  of  Bunsen. 

50.  History  of  photography. 

51.  The  relative  values  of  foods  from  cereals. 

52.  Antiquity  of  the  human  race. 

53.  The  theory  of  natural  selection. 

54.  Distinction  between  animal  and  plant  life. 

55.  How  were  the  fjords  probably  produced? 

56.  Probable  cause  of  volcanic  action. 

57.  Metamorphoses  of  insects. 

58.  Types  of  race  structure. 

59.  Is  alcohol  a  food  ? 

60.  The  conclusions  of  science  as  to  tobacco. 

61.  Present  status  of  economic  entomology. 

62.  Treeless  prairies  —  how  explained? 

63.  Causes  of  climatic  change. 

64.  Rainfall  in  the  glacial  period. 

65.  Slaty  cleavage  —  how  produced  ? 

66.  Sudden  appearance  of  fishes  in  the  Silurian  age  — 
how  harmonize  this  fact  with  the  evolution  hypothesis  ? 

67.  Theories  of  storms. 

68.  The   hypothesis   of  contraction  of  the  earth's   sur- 
face. 

69.  The  drying  up  of  interior  lakes — how  explained? 

70.  Tides  in  palaeozoic  times. 

71.  Theories  about  tornadoes. 

72.  Formation  of  vegetable  mould  through  the  action  of 
worms, 


Appendix  Gr  2.  233 

73.  Influence  of  geography  on  history. 

74.  Scientific  results  of  Alexander  the  Great's  conquests. 

75.  Conflict  between  science  and  religion. 

76.  Galileo's  abjuration  of  truth. 

77.  The  work  of  Agassiz. 

78.  Charles  Darwin. 

79.  Work  of  Herbert  Spencer. 

80.  Revelations  of  the  microscope. 


Mathematics  and  Astronomy. 

1.  Application  of  least  squares  to  problems  in  physics. 

2.  Value  of  the  study  of  geometry. 

3.  Short  history  of  logarithms. 

4.  What  conditions  enter  into  observations  with  mathe- 
matical instruments  ? 

5.  How  shall  an  observer  test  his  observations  ? 

6.  History  of  Taylor's  formula  and  its  applications. 

7.  Compare  Euclid's  idea  of  proportion  with  Legendre's 
in  geometry. 

8.  Of  what  sciences  is  mathematics  the  basis  ? 

9.  Inhabitancy  of  planets. 

10.  Nebular  hypothesis. 

11.  Meteoric  hypothesis. 

12.  Photography  as  an  aid  to  astronomy. 

13.  The  spectroscope  in  astronomy. 

14.  Theories  of  sun  spots. 

15.  The  history  of  algebra. 

16.  Origin  and  nature  of  comets. 

17.  Theories  of  meteors. 

18.  The  rings  of  Saturn. 

19.  Recent  observations  of  Mars. 

20.  The  canals  of  Mars. 

21.  Has  the  moon  any  influence  on  crops  ? 

22.  The  fourth  dimension. 


234  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Agriculture,  Horticulture,  and  Forestry. 

1.  Advantages  of  silo. 

2.  Recent  experiments  in  rain-making. 

3.  Advantages  of  farmers7  institutes. 

4.  Plans  for  a  model  barn. 

5.  Should  experiment  stations  be  dissociated  from  agri- 
cultural colleges  ? 

6.  Sheep-raising  in  this  State. 

7.  Horse-racing  at  county  fairs. 

8.  Requisites  of  an  ideal  grape. 

9.  Moral  aspect  of  wine-making. 

10.  The  establishment  of  a  commercial  apple  orchard. 

11.  The  germination  of  seed. 

12.  What  is  a 'seed? 

13.  The  bud  propagation  of  plants. 

14.  A  study  of  an  apple. 

15.  Best  method  of  destroying  weeds. 

16.  The  value  of  weeds. 

17.  Essentials  of  a  good  shade-tree. 

18.  Necessity  of  tree-planting  in  this  State. 

19.  Value  of  bees  in  fruit  culture. 

20.  Preservation  of  forests. 

21.  American  farming  methods. 

22.  Hesiod's  ideas  of  farming. 

23.  The  fertilization  of  flowers. 

24.  Relation  of  plant  life  to  soil  formation. 

25.  Diseases  of  trees. 

26.  How  a  bushel  of  Dakota  wheat  gets  to  market. 

27.  The  most  profitable  apple  to  raise  in  your  State. 

28.  To  what  extent  apply  rotation  in  crops  ? 

29.  Applications  of  electricity  to  farming. 

30.  A  discussion  of  soils. 

31.  Seasons  for  grafting. 

32.  The  care  of  farm  machinery. 


Appendix  G-  2.  235 

33.  Breeds  of  horses  for  farm  work. 

34.  Value  of  education  to  the  farmer. 

35.  Social  life  in  agricultural  communities. 

36.  How  should  the  government  protect  forests  ? 

37.  Does  government  seed-distribution  pay  ? 

38.  Success  of  the  war  against  pleuro-pneumonia. 

39.  Oleomargarine  and  the  dairyman. 

40.  Best  means  of  securing  good  country  roads. 

41.  Do  forests  affect  rain-fall  ? 

42.  Influence  of  forests  on  water-storage. 

43.  Causes  of  increase  of  floods  in  the  Mississippi  valley. 

Engineering. 

1.  Relative  value  of  iron  and  steel  in  truss  construction. 

2.  Advantage  of  electricity  over  compressed  air  in  min- 
ing operations. 

3.  What  place  should  be  assigned  Captain  Eads  as  an 
engineer  ? 

4.  What  part   did   Professor   Henry  have  in  Morse's 
invention  of  the  telegraph  ? 

5.  What  is  the  best  type  of  high-masonry  dams. 

6.  Comparative   merits   of   cedar,    brick,  and  stone  as 
street-pavement. 

7.  Effect  on  street  railway  traffic  of  the  substitution  of 
electric  power  for  horse  power. 

8.  Effect  of  cable  and  electric  railways  in  promoting  the 
growth  of  cities. 

9.  Comparative  merits  of  cable  and  electric  street  rail- 
way systems. 

10.  What  obstacles  must  be  overcome  before  electricity 
can  supplant  steam  on  long-distance  railways  ? 

11.  Best  means  for  providing  for  the  sewerage  of  the 
university  grounds. 

12.  How  can  the  local  water  supply  be  improved  ? 


236  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

13.  Characteristic  differences  between  types  of  bridges. 

14.  Compare  different  sewerage  systems. 

15.  What  is  the  best  method  of  sewage  disposal  ? 

16.  Influence  of  Stephenson  on  modern  civilization. 

17.  Need  of  local  sanitary  improvements. 

18.  Advantages  of  national  geodetic  surveys. 

19.  Defend  the  Hennepin  canal  project. 

20.  Should  an  architect  be  a  civil  engineer  ? 

21.  Should  a  civil   engineer  be  a  mechanical   engineer 
also? 

22.  How  should  the  engineering   corps  of  the  United 
States  be  made  up  ? 

23.  Modern  methods  of  tunnel-building. 

24.  Flying  machines. 

25.  A  short  history  of  metallurgy. 

26.  Light-house  construction. 

27.  The  Eads  ship  railway. 

28.  How  is  a  suspension  bridge  constructed  ? 

29.  Describe  the  method  of  producing  silver  from  the 
ores  of  the  Comstock  lode. 

30.  A  short  description  of  the  Comstock  lode. 

31.  History  of  silver  mining  in  Virginia  City. 

32.  Conditions  affecting  high  speed  of  railway  trains. 

33.  A  description  of  the  General  Electric  Co.'s  Diamond 
Drill. 

34.  Use  of  the  sextant  in  sounding  surveys. 

35.  Aerial  Navigation. 

36.  Modern  applications  of  electricity. 

37.  The  manufacture  of  tile. 

38.  Improvements    in    locomotive    construction    during 
twenty  years. 

39.  Future  uses  of  gas  and  electricity. 

40.  Best  route  for  a  ship-canal  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific. 

41.  Advantages  of  laboratory  work. 


Appendix  Gr  3.  237 

42.  Value  of  manual  training  in  a  liberal  education. 

43.  On  what  problems  are  leading  physicists  working  ? 

44.  Will   laboratory   work    in   physics   be   useful   to   a 
lawyer  ? 

45.  Contrast  Faraday  and  Maxwell  as  to  habits  of  thought. 

46.  How  much  work  in  physics  should  a  student  take 
who  purposes  to  study  medicine  ? 

47.  Influence  of  discoveries  in  physics  upon  commerce. 

48.  On  what  ground  is  elementary  physics  prescribed  for 
admission  to  most  American  colleges  ? 

49.  What  has  been  added  to  the  general  stock  of  physical 
knowledge  during  the  last  ten  years  ? 

50.  The  modern  locomotive  and  its  development. 

51.  Morse  as  an  inventor. 

52.  Credit  due  to  Joseph  Henry. 

53.  The  manufacture  of  steel. 

54.  The  system  of  United  States  land  surveys. 

55.  West  Point  and  a  general  polytechnic  school  com- 
pared. 

56.  Systems  of  house  drainage. 

57.  The  Mississippi  levee  system. 

58.  How  to  fire  a  boiler. 

59.  Old  and  recent  methods  of  steam-engine  practice. 

60.  What  Edison  has  accomplished. 

61.  The  building  of  the  Cantilever  bridge  at  Niagara. 

62.  Small  motors. 

3. 

A  MISCELLANEOUS  LIST  OF  ESSAY  SUBJECTS. 

1.  The  Eiffel  tower.  4.   Journalists    and    news- 

2.  Importance  of  Foreign  mongers. 

and  Home   Missions     5.    Sunday  observance, 
compared.  6.    Eesults  of  Stanley's  ex- 

3.  The  United  States  Navy.  plorations. 


238 


Paragraph  -  Writing. 


7.  The  G.  A.  B.  as  a  politi-  29. 

cal  force.  30. 

8.  The     new    talking    ma-   31. 

chines. 

9.  Social    influence     of  32. 

churches. 

10.  China  and  modern  ideas.    33. 

11.  Library  architecture. 

12.  Social  uses  of  the  kieker.   34. 

13.  Executions  by  electricity.   35. 

14.  Influence  of  public  libra- 

ries. 

15.  American    influence    in   36. 

China. 

16.  Heligoland.    4 

17.  The  ideal  newspaper.          37. 

18.  The  map  of  Africa. 

19.  Materials     for     art     in 

America.  38. 

20.  A  Chinese  theatre.  39. 

21.  The  Chinese  in  San  Fran- 

cisco. 40. 

22.  Methods  of  communica- 

tion with  inhabitants 
of  other  planets. 

23.  Acoustics. 

24.  The  history  of  the  violin.   41. 

25.  Is  Christianity  thriving   42. 

in  Turkey  ? 

26.  The  utilitarian  theory  of  43. 

morals.  44. 

27.  Egoism  and  altruism  as   45. 

moral  principles.  46. 

28.  The  moral  aspect  of  alms-   47. 

giving. 


The  divorce  problem. 

Morality  and  art. 

The  oratorio  as  a  musical 
form. 

Gluck  and  Mozart  com- 
pared. 

Martin  Luther  and 
church  music. 

Wagner. 

The  probable  effect  of 
socialism  on  literary 
activity. 

Causes  of  England's  dif- 
ficulty in  governing 
Ireland. 

How  can  better  food  be 
secured  to  working- 
men? 

Remedies  against  floods. 

Should  inheritances  be 
taxed? 

Should  the  amount  of 
money  that  may  be 
bequeathed  to  an  in- 
dividual be  limited  by 
law? 

Phonetic  spelling. 

Is  art  amenable  to  a 
moral  standard  ? 

Popular  amusements. 

Archery. 

Boating. 

Boat-races. 

Prize-fights  should  be 
prohibited. 


Appendix  Gr  3. 


239 


48.  The   use   and    abuse    of  74. 

athletic  sports.  75. 

49.  Yachting.  76. 

50.  Martin  Luther. 

51.  Mahomet  and  his  follow- 

ers. 77. 

52.  The  Huguenots.  78. 

53.  Confucius.  79. 

54.  Benvenuto  Cellini.  80. 

55.  The  Albigenses. 

56.  Hermits.  81. 

57.  The  newsboy. 

58.  Beggars.  82. 

59.  Agriculture  in  England. 

60.  Agriculture  in  Italy.  83. 

61.  Progress  in  agriculture. 

62.  Knights  of  Labor.  84. 

63.  The   Chicago    Board    of  85. 

Trade. 

64.  Paper.  86. 

65.  The  art  of  advertising.  87. 

66.  Curiosities  of  advertis-  88. 

ing.  89. 

67.  Glass-making.  90. 

68.  History     of    brick-mak-  91. 

ing.  92. 

69.  Has     Prohibition     been  93. 

successful  in  Maine  ?  94. 

70.  The     American    system  95. 

of  government.  96. 

71.  Shall    Americans    build  97. 

ships  ? 

72.  Our  National  Congress.  98. 

73.  Civil    Service    in    Great  99. 

Britain. 


The  schools  of  England. 

The  use  of  note-books. 

A  liberal  education 
should  precede  the 
professional. 

German  universities. 

Electricity  and  its  uses. 

Artesian  wells. 

Artesian  wells  in  the 
Great  Sahara. 

The  history  of  teleg- 
raphy. 

The  measurement  of 
time. 

History  of  the  steam- 
boat. 

The  fixed  stars. 

The  other  side  of  the 
moon. 

Habits  of  ants. 

Honey-making  ants. 

Animal  intelligence. 

Insects. 

The  intelligence  of  ants. 

The  coral  animal. 

Ants,  bees,  wasps. 

Light. 

Sound. 

History  of  music. 

Grecian  music. 

Michael  Angelo  as  a 
sculptor. 

The  Laplanders. 

Is  there  an  open  polar 
sea? 


240 


Paragraph  -  Writing. 


100.  Genghis  Khan.  129. 

101.  Brigands  of  Sicily.  130. 

102.  Zuni  Indians.  131. 

103.  The  Japanese  Constitu- 

tion. 132. 

104.  Was  Alaska  a  profitable  133. 

investment  ?  134. 

105.  The    Northern    Pacific  135. 

Eailroad. 

106.  The  romance  of  the  sea.  136. 

107.  Stanley     and     Living- 

stone. 137. 

108.  The  Mammoth  Cave.  138. 

109.  Depths  of  the  ocean.  139. 

110.  The  Rhine.     ,  140. 

111.  Cyprus.  141. 

112.  Greenland.  142. 

113.  History  of  Paris. 

114.  The  Arabian  Nights.  143. 

115.  The  Fiji  Islands.  144. 

116.  The  Koman  Emperors.  145. 

117.  Hannibal.  146. 

118.  The  Olympic  games.  147. 

119.  The  Manilian  law.  148. 

120.  Caesar's  wars  in  Gaul.  149. 

121.  Social  life  in  Greece.  150. 

122.  Old  Greek  education. 

123.  The  Gracchi.  151. 

124.  The  Homeric  question.  152. 

125.  Ancient     and    Modern  153. 

Greece.  154. 

126.  Thucydides.  155. 

127.  Socrates  and  the  Soph-  156. 

ists.  157. 

128.  Social  life  in  Kome.  158. 


Alexander  and  Caesar. 

^Eschylus. 

A  Greek  naval  fight, 
by  an  eye-witness. 

Nero. 

The  age  of  Pericles. 

Xerxes. 

Dr.  Schliemann's  dis- 
coveries. 

Pompeii,  ancient  and 
modern. 

A  day  in  ancient  Athens. 

School  life  in  Athens. 

Rome  and  Carthage. 

The  Letters  of  Junius. 

Greek  literature. 

The  dress  of  the  Greeks 
and  Eomans. 

Charles  Ste  wartParnell. 

Madame  de  Stael. 

Charles  James  Fox. 

Eosa  Bonheur. 

George  Canning. 

Benjamin  West. 

Paul  the  Apostle. 

Longfellow's  home  and 
home  life. 

Charles  Dudley  Warner. 

Sir  John  Franklin. 

Florence  Nightingale. 

William  Pitt. 

Horace  Greeley. 

Peter  Stuyvesant. 

William  Wilberforce. 

Liszt. 


Appendix  Cr  3. 


241 


159.    Richard  Brinsley  Sheri-  185. 

dan.  186. 

Cornelius  Vanderbilt.  187. 

Edwin  Booth.  188. 


160. 
161. 
162. 

163. 
164. 
165. 
166. 
167. 
168. 
169. 
170. 

171. 
172. 

173. 
174. 
175. 

176. 
177. 

178. 
179. 

180. 
181. 
182. 
183. 


New     England     farms,  189. 

past  and  present.  190. 

Lord  Olive. 

The  South-sea  Bubble.  191. 

Frederick  the  Great.  192. 

The  Tournament.  193. 

William  the  Silent.  194. 

The  battle  of  Shiloh. 

Alexander  the  Great.  195. 

The    battle    of    Water-  196. 
loo. 

The  City  of  Mexico,  an-  197. 

cient  and  modern.  198. 

The   Civil    Rights    Bill  199. 

and  its  effects.  200. 

The  study  of  history.  201. 

Peter  the  Great. 

The      Missouri      Com- 
promise. 202. 

The  British  Peerage.  203. 

Witchcraft  inNewEng-  204. 

land.  205. 

Chevalier  La  Salle.  206. 

The    character    of    Co-  207. 

lumbus.  208. 

Hernando  Cortez.  209. 

The  dark  ages.  210. 

Charles  the  Great.  211. 

The  Northmen  in  Amer- 
ica. 212. 
184,    Feudalism  and  chivalry.  213. 


The  Lion-hearted  King. 

Marlborough. 

The  Feudal  system. 

Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 

Louis  the  Fifteenth. 

The  Seven  Wonders  of 
the  World. 

The  Ferris  wheel. 

Magna  Charta. 

The  Flagellants. 

Early  social  life  in 
New  England. 

Races  of  the  Danube. 

Social  life  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons. 

American  antiquities. 

Louis  the  Fourteenth. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers. 

The  Norman  Conquest. 

The  reasons  for  the 
success  of  the  Ameri- 
can Revolution. 

The  Earl  of  Chatham. 

The  Thirty  Years'  War. 

The  French  Revolution. 

Zenobia. 

Palmyra. 

English  in  Egypt. 

Emin  Pasha. 

The  Eastern  question. 

Ireland. 

Chile :  its  rise  and 
power. 

Russians  in  Asia. 

The  Soudan. 


242 


Paragraph  -  Writing. 


214.  Slavery  and   the   slave   241. 

trade  in  Brazil.  242. 

215.  Prescott's  Conquest  of  243. 

Mexico. 

216.  Almanacs.  244. 

217.  Old  almanacs.  245. 

218.  The  Faerie  Queen.  246. 

219.  The  British  Museum. ;      247. 

220.  Longfellow's   Songs   of  248. 

Hiawatha.  249. 

221.  Edmund  Burke.  250. 

222.  Thomas  Carlyle  and  his  251. 

influence.  252. 

223.  Caliban.  253. 

224.  Hypatia.        ,  254. 

225.  Lowell's     Among     My 

Books.  255. 

226.  King  Arthur. 

227.  Eound  Table   of  King  256. 

Arthur. 

228.  Times  of  King  Arthur.    257. 

229.  Legends  of  King  Arthur.   258. 

230.  The  prevailing  thought 

of  the  Tempest.  259. 

231.  The  story  of  Euth.  260. 

232.  Dr.  Arnold.  261. 

233.  Stanley's  Through   the 

Dark  Continent.  262. 

234.  S.  T.  Coleridge.  263. 

235.  Edmund  Spenser.  264. 

236.  Beaumont  and  Fletcher. 

237.  Goethe's  character.  265. 

238.  Our  Mutual  Friend. 

239.  The  Pilgrim's  Progress.    266. 

240.  Shakespeare's  villains.      267. 


William  Cullen  Bryant. 

Hero  worship. 

The   Cotter's    Saturday 

Night. 

Longfellow's  Outre-Mer. 
Joseph  Addison. 
Don  Quixote. 
The  Koran. 

Shakespeare's  Tempest. 
Washington  Irving. 
John  Lothrop  Motley. 
Bret  Harte. 
Gil  Bias. 
Rip  Van  Winkle. 
J.  G.  Holland's  Mistress 

of  the  Manse. 
How    to    read    periodi- 
cals. 
Longfellow's  Tales  of  a 

Wayside  Inn. 
Female  novelists. 
Dickens'     humorous 

characters. 
The  Kalevala. 
W.  D.  Howells. 
J.  G.  Holland's  Bitter- 

Sweet. 

Shakespeare's  heroines. 
Little  Dorrit. 
Oliver  Goldsmith's  She 

Stoops  to  Conquer. 
Burnaby's   Ride    to 

Khiva. 

Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 
Childe  Harold. 


Appendix  Cr  3. 


243 


268.  The  Wandering  Jew.        293. 

269.  The  sources  of  the  plot 

of  the  Tempest.  294. 

270.  The  power  of  oratory.      295. 

271.  A    comparison    of    the 

Tempest    and    Mid-   296. 
summer     Night's 
Dream.  297. 

272.  Gulliver's  Travels.  298. 

273.  National  hymns. 

274.  Cervantes.  299. 

275.  T.  B.  Macaulay.  300. 

276.  A  comparison  of  Dick-   301. 

ens  and  Thackeray. 

277.  Was  Thackeray  a  snob?   302. 

278.  The  verse  of  the  Tem- 

pest. 

279.  Macaulay  as  an  histo-  303. 

torian. 

280.  Ariel  and  Puck.  304. 

281.  The  motive  of  reading. 

282.  Longfellow's    shorter   305. 

poems. 

283.  Scott's    Quentin    Dur- 

ward.  306. 

284.  Robert  Southey.  307. 

285.  N.  P.  Willis.  308. 

286.  Tolstoi. 

287.  Ariel  and  Miranda.  309. 

288.  The  English  novel.  310. 

289.  Nicholas  Nickleby.  311. 

290.  Apiculture. 

291.  How     postage    stamps   312. 

are  made. 

292.  The  tulip  mania.  313. 


The  philosophy  of  Benj. 

Franklin. 

National  peculiarities. 
Is    the   jury   system   a 

failure  ? 
The    character   of    the 

Indian. 

Teachers'  Institutes. 
Form   and   material  of 

ancient  books. 
The  Grange  movement. 
A  Roman  library. 
Some    of    my    queer 

friends. 
The  dangers  of  work  — 

reflections   of  a  lazy 

man. 
The  advantage  of  being 

small. 
A   day   on   the    planet 

Mars. 
What   I   remembered 

when   I   was   drown- 
ing. 

Books  that  I  like. 
Three  great  failures. 
The  corner-grocery  phi- 
losopher. 
Life  in  Utopia. 
The  art  of  forgetting. 
How    we   are   deceived 

by  our  senses. 
How  to  be  happy  though 

rich. 
The  Anglornaniac. 


244  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

314.  Elements  of  savagery  in  men  derived  from  the 

modern  civilization.  comic  papers. 

315.  The  horrors  of  peace.       319.  Rambles  in  the  diction- 

316.  On  the  rapidity  of  po-  ary. 

lite  conversation.          320.  At  the  primary. 

317.  A  modern  Aristides.         321.  The   unwritten  law    of 

318.  Impressions   of   great  the  campus. 


CAPITALS,  PUNCTUATION,  ETC. 

The  rules  for  capitalization,  punctuation,  etc.,  given  in 
grammars  and  rhetorics  are,  of  purpose,  laid  down  some- 
what dogmatically.  In  actual  practice  no  such  uniformity 
can  be  found.  Each  publishing  firm,  each  magazine  and 
each  newspaper  has  its  own  rules,  —  rules  which  its  editors 
follow  and  impose,  so  far  as  possible,  on  all  who  supply  it 
with  manuscript.  We  shall  first  present  the  general  rules 
for  capitals  and  for  the  six  most  common  marks  of  punctua- 
tion, and  then  shall  show  some  of  the  variations  from  those 
rules  in  actual  practice,  by  means  of  extracts  from  the 
6  cards '  of  representative  daily  papers. 


General  Rules  for  Capitals. 
The  following  words  should  begin  with  capitals :  — 

1.  The   first  word   of   every  book,  chapter,  letter,  and 
paragraph. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period;  and,  usually,  after  the 
interrogation  point  and  the  exclamation  point. 

3.  Divine  names ;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Supreme  Being. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  rivers,  oceans,  ships ; 
as,  Franklin,  Chicago,  Mississippi,  Atlantic,  the  Monitor. 


Appendix  Gr  4.  245 

5.  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  places ; 
as,  English,  French,  Roman,  American. 

6.  The  first  word  of  an  exact  quotation  in  a  direct  form ; 
as,  he  said,  '  There  will  be  war.' 

7.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  0  ! 

8.  Terms  of  great  historical  importance ;  as,  the  Refor- 
mation, the  Civil  War,  the  Whigs,  the  Revolution. 


General  Rules  for  Punctuation. 

The  comma,  semi-colon,  and  colon  mark  the  three  degrees 
of  separation  in  the  parts  of  a  sentence;  the  comma  the 
smallest  degree,  the  semi-colon  a  greater  degree,  and  the 
colon  the  greatest  degree.  To  illustrate  :  — 

Ehetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  Grammar,  and  ^Esthetics. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  Logic,  which  deals  with  the  laws 
of  thought;  upon  Grammar,  which  presents  the  facts  and 
rules  of  correct  language;  and  upon  ^Esthetics,  which  in- 
vestigates the  principles  of  beauty. 

Rhetoric  is  based  upon  the  following  sciences :  Logic, 
which  deals  with  the  laws  of  thought;  Grammar,  which 
presents  the  facts  and  rules  of  correct  language ;  and 
^Esthetics,  which  investigates  the  principles  of  beauty. 


Rules  for  the  Comma. 

A  comma  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  separate  grammatically  independent  elements  from 
the  context ;  as,  '  Rejoice,  young  man ! ' 

2.  To  separate  intermediate,  transposed,  and  parenthetical 
elements  from  the  context ;  as,  '  Even  good  men,  they  say, 
sometimes  act  like  brutes.' 

3.  To  separate  expressions  in  apposition  from  the  con- 


246  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

text ;    as,    '  Washington,   the   first   President,    served    two 
terms/ 

4.  To  separate  contrasted  words  or  phrases,  and  words 
or  phrases  in  pairs ;   as,  ( We   live   in   deeds,   not  years.7 
'  Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my 
hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote.' 

5.  To  mark  the  omission  of  words ;  as,  '  In  war  he  was 
warlike ;  in  peace,  peaceable.' 

6.  Before  short  and  informal  quotations ;  as,  '  He  shouted, 
"Come  in !"' 

NOTE.  —  It  is  quite  possible  to  use  the  comma  too  frequently  ;  as,  *  It 
is  well  known,  that,  when  water  is  cooled,  below  a  certain  point,  con- 
traction ceases,  and  expansion  begins.'  Better:  'It  is  well  known 
that  when  water  is  cooled  below  a  certain  point,  contraction  ceases 
and  expansion  begins.' 


Mules  for  the  /Semi-Colon. 

A  semi-colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  — 

1.  To  separate  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when 
they  are  complex  or  loosely  connected,  or  when  they  contain 
commas. 

2.  To  separate  short  sentences  closely  connected  in  mean- 
ing. 

3.  To  introduce  an  example,  before  as. 

4.  To   separate  clauses   having  a  common   dependence. 
Illustrations   of    these   rules:    *  Science    declares    that   no 
particle  of  matter  can  be  destroyed ;  that  each  atom  has 
its    place    in    the    universe ;     and    that,    in    seeking   that 
place,   each  obeys  certain  fixed  laws.'     'When  education 
shall   be   made   a  qualification  for  suffrage ;    when  politi- 
cians shall  give  place  to  statesmen;  —  then,  and  not  till 
then,  will  the  highest  development  of  our  government  be 
reached.' 


Appendix  Gr  4.  247 

Mules  for  the  Colon. 

The  colon  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  introduce  several  particulars  complex  in  form,  in 
apposition  to  a  general  term,  and  separated  from  one  another 
by  semi-colons.    ^(Already  illustrated.) 

2.  To  introduce  long  formal  quotations.     If  the  quotation 
begins  a  new  paragraph  a  dash  should  be  used  instead  of  a 
colon. 

Rules  for  the  Period. 

The  period  is  used  in  the  following  instances :  — 

1.  To  mark  the  completion  of  a  declarative  sentence. 

2.  After  abbreviations ;  as,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  Vt.,  Ala. 


Rules  for  the  Interrogation  Point. 

The  interrogation  point  is  used 

1.  After  every  direct  question ;   as,  « Will  you  come  ?  ' 
'  You  have  been  to  Niagara  ?  '     *  When  was  such  a  promise 
made  ?     By  whom  ?  ' 

2.  In  parentheses  to  express  doubt ;   as,  '  In  the  time  of 
Homer,  850  (?)  B.C.' 

Mules  for  the  Exclamation  Point. 

The  exclamation  point  is  used 

1.  To  express  strong  emotion ;  as,  i  He  is  dead,  the  sweet 
musician ! ' 

2.  To  express  doubt  or  sarcasm  ;  as,  'That  man  a  poet ! ' 

3.  After  interjections  ;  as  <  Oh  ! '     '  0  my  Country  ! ' 


248  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

Variations  from  the  Rules. 

The  explanation  of  the  abbreviations  used  is  as  follows  :  — 

Trans.  =  Boston  Evening  Transcript. 

Trib.    =  Chicago  Tribune. 

F.  P.    =  Detroit  Free  Press. 

Bl.        =  Toledo  Blade. 

C.  G.    =  Cincinnati  Commercial-Gazette. 

P.  D.    =  Cleveland  Plain  Dealer. 

Varieties  of  Punctuation. 

1.  After  an  introduction  to  an  extract  or  quotation,  use  a 
colon  if  the  voice  naturally  falls ;   as,  "  He  spoke  as  fol- 
lows : "    If  the  stop  is  not  a  complete  one,  use  a  comma, 
except  when  the  paragraph  closes,  when  a  dash  should  be 
used.     The  following  will  illustrate :  — 

A  dispatch  from  Los  Angeles  says,  "The  yield  of  grapes," 
etc.     Says  the  editor —     [Trans.] 

2.  Omit  comma  in  cases  like  the  following :  John  Smith 
of  New  York,  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brown  of  Detroit,  and  Mr.  Jones 
of  Chicago.     In  lists  of  names  use  only  the  comma  after 
the  town,  except  in  cases  where  phrases  occur  describing 
the  persons  or  their  business,  in  which  case  use  the  comma 
and  semicolon.     Thus:   James  Brown  of  No.  272  Wabash 
Avenue,  Chicago ;  W.  D.  Ho  wells,  the  popular  novelist,  of 
Boston;   and   Labouchere,  editor   of   London    Truth,  were 
present.     [Trib.] 

3.  Use  comma  before  "and,"   "or,"   "nor,"  etc.,  when 
they  connect  three  or  more  nouns,  adjectives,  etc. ;  as  John, 
James,  and  Henry  leave  town  next  week ;    he  was  kicked, 
and  cuffed,  and  beaten.     [Trib.] 

4.  Use  the  dash  before  and  colon  after  viz.,  to  wit,  namely, 
etc.     [Trib.] 


Appendix  G  4.  249 

5.  The  name  of  the  State  in  the  following  case  should  be 
enclosed  in  parentheses:  "The  Jackson  (Mich.)  Pilot  has 
enlarged."     [Trib.] 

6.  When  two  sentences  compose  a  headline,  use  a  dash 
between  them  instead  of  a  period.     [F.  P.] 

7.  In  testimony,  use  semi-colon  when  sentences  are  in- 
complete.    [F.  P.]     "Went  to  the  window;    looked  out; 
saw  the  prisoner,  etc."     [Trib.] 

8.  In   a   run-in   [not   paragraphed]    list  of  officers,   use 
comma   and  semi-colon.     When    paragraphed,   use   a  dash 
between  title  and  name.     [F.  P.] 

9.  When  the  words  cheers,  applause,  hear,  laughter,  or  a 
reference  in  a  legal  decision,  occur  without  a  break  in  the 
sentence,   use   parentheses ;    but    when   such   interpolation 
occurs  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  punctuate  as  a  separate 
sentence  and  inclose  in  brackets.     [F.  P.] 

10.  Use   brackets  to  inclose   interruptions    in  speeches, 
and  ail  other  interpolations  ;  as — [Applause],  [Laughter], 
[Signed];    "The  senator  from  Delaware   [Mr.  Saulsbury] 
saw  fit."     [Trans.] 

11.  Use  hyphen  in  such  cases  as  first-  and  second-class 
stocks,  8-  to  6-100,  etc.     [Bl.] 

Varieties  of  Capitalization. 

12.  Do  not  capitalize  common  names  of  grains,  fruits,  or 
flowers.     [F.  P.] 

13.  Keep  up  [i.e.,  capitalize]  pronouns  referring  to  the 
Deity  or  Savior.     [F.  P.] 

14.  Capitalize  pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  only  when 
standing  alone,  without  an  antecedent  noun.     [Trans.] 

15.  Do  not  capitalize  pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity. 
[Trib.] 

16.  Capitalize  all  synonyms  of  the  Deity,  but  not  he  or 
him.     [P.  D.] 


250  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

17.  All  full  titles  of  nobility,  etc.,  to  be  capitalized,  as  — 
Prince  of  Wales,  etc. ;  but  when  standing  alone,  the  words 
duke,  earl,  etc.,  to  begin  with  lower-case  letter.     Titles  of 
sovereignty  to  begin  with  a  lower-case  letter  when  followed 
by  the  name  of  the  country,  etc.,  ruled  over,  but  in  caps 
when  followed  by  name  of  ruler ;   thus  —  grand  duke  of 
Hesse,  queen  of  England ;   also,  the  king,  the  pope,  etc. ; 
but  King  Kalakaua,  etc.     In  exception  to  this  rule,  capitalize 
President  and  Vice-President,  whenever  they  occur,  whether 
with  the  name  or  not,  when  referring  to  the  United  States 
officers ;    also   Chief    Magistrate,    meaning   the   President. 
[Trans.] 

18.  All  titles  of  office  to  be  capitalized  when  before  the 
name,   but   not  when   alone ;    thus  —  General  Burrell,    ex- 
Mayor  Stokley ;  the  general,  the  mayor,  etc.     Cases  such 
as  the  following,  however,  to  be  put  as  here  given :  pilot 
Sayles,  officer  Tapley,  baggage-master  Bangs,  lawyer  Cross, 
and  the  like.     [Trans.] 

19.  Capitalize  the  names  of  national,  state,  county,  city, 
and  town  official  bodies  and  departments  of  this  and  other 
governments ;    as    Senate,    Diet,    House   of    Nobles,   Coast 
Survey,  Life  Saving  Service  (but  not  life  saving  station), 
Civil  Service  Commission  (but  not  civil  service),  Common 
Council,  but  central  precinct,  police  headquarters,  fire  de- 
partment.    [F.  P.]     Adjectives  derived  from  these  names 
to  begin  with  small  letter.     [Trans.] 

20.  In  "  College  News "  capitalize   University,  College, 
Faculty,   names   of   Classes,    Professors   and  their   Chairs 
(Professor  of  Mathematics).     [C.  G.] 

21.  Lower-case   [i.e.,  do  not  capitalize]   departments  in 
universities,  schools,  W.  C.  T.  U.,  etc. — as,  literary  depart- 
ment, grammar  class,  sailors'  department.     [F.  P.] 

22.  In  compound  names  of  corporations,  organizations, 
official  bodies,  etc.,  the  distinctive  word  or  words  are  proper 
adjectives  or  nouns,  and  are  to  be  capitalized,  but  not  the 


Appendix  Gr  4.  251 

remainder :  the  Lake  Shore  railroad  company,  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  association,  First  Congregational  church. 
There  is  a  small  class  of  compound  names  which  are  proper 
names  and  need  capitals  —  the  Boody  House,  House  of 
Refuge,  Custom-house,  Wheeler's  Opera  House.  Never 
capitalize  these  when  used  in  the  plural,  or  in  a  general 
sense,  but  only  when  referring  to  a  particular  one.  [Bl.] 

23.  All  positions  in  the  church  up  to  Bishop  (Presiding 
Elder)  are  in  lower  case,  such  as  rector,  deacon,  monk,  etc. 

[C,  G.] 

24.  Do    not    capitalize    Christian,    church,    any    church 
officers.     [Trib.] 

25.  Capitalize    committee,    association,    club,    company, 
etc.,  when  name  is  given,  as   Finance  Committee,  Eureka 
Insurance  Company ;  all  other  instances  lower  case.    Names 
of  political  parties,  etc.,  are  capitalized.     [C.  G.] 

26.  Keep  up   official   titles   of  city,  county,   state,  and 
national   officers,   no   matter   how  referred   to,  as    Mayor, 
Clerk  (but  not  the  Clerk's  clerk  or  his  chief  clerk),  Sheriff, 
Receiver  of  Taxes,  Consul  General,  Speaker  (of  a  legislative 
body),  but  not  a  consul,  commercial  agent,  warden,  alder- 
man, constable,  deputy  sheriff,  justice  of  the  peace,  inspector 
of    election,   market    clerk,    sergeant-at-arms,    door-keeper. 
[F.  P.] 

27.  A  waved  line  under  a  head  indicates  it  is  to  be  set 
in  Nonpareil  Title ;  two  dashes  in  SMALL  CAPS.     In  double 
heads,  three  dashes  under  first  line,  a  waved  line  under  the 
second.     [Bl.] 

28.  In  headlines  capitalize  first  and  last  words,  all  nouns 
and  important  words,  except  short  adjectives,  prepositions 
and  conjunctions  —  such  as  a,  an,  the,  in,  by,  of,  and,  or, 
nor,  for.     [F.  P.] 

29.  Capitalize  without  quoting  (on  the  principle  that  the 
name  or   title   is   the  proper  name  of  the  specific   thing 
mentioned)  all  the  words  of  the  name  of  a  book,  lecture, 


252  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

song,  play,  opera,  picture,  etc.,  excepting  conjunctions, 
prepositions,  and  articles.  As,  He  read  a  paper  on  the 
Theory  of  Gases  ;  I  am  reading  The  Mill  on  the  Floss. 
[P.  D.J 

30.  Capitalize    North,    South,    East,    West,    North-west, 
etc.,  when  referring  to  a  section  of  the  country;  in  other 
cases  use  the  lower  case.     [C.  G.] 

31.  Capitalize  the  prefixes  von,  de,  de  la,  etc.,  in  foreign 
proper  names  only  when  not  preceded  by  title  or  Christian 
name;  as  De  Lesseps,  M.  de  Lesseps.     [Trans.] 

32.  When    the    titles    M.,    Mme.,    Mile.,    Sig.,    or    Mgr. 
(Monsignor)  precede  "de"  or  "du,"  use  small  "d."    When 
a  name  of  which  "De"  or  "Du"  forms  a  part  is  preceded 
by  Mr.  or  Mrs.,  use  a  capital  "  D."     [Trib.] 

33.  In  reports,  of   meetings  in  which  papers  are  read, 
capitalize  the  principal  words,  if  the  title  is  short ;  but  if 
long  put  in  lower  case;   as  —  Papers  were  read  on  "The 
Physician's  Duties,"  and  "  Should  the  physician  desire  to 
obtain  a  profit  on  articles  prescribed  for  patients  ?  "     But 
the  principal  words   in  all  titles  of  books  to  begin  with 
capitals  invariably.     [Trans.] 

34.  Do  not  capitalize  esq.,  sr.,  jr.,  a.  m.,  p.  m.,  m.     [BL] 

Compounds. 

35.  Use  hyphen  with  compounds  of  self-,  semi-  and  anti-. 

36.  Make  separate  words  of  three  or  more  words  involv- 
ing one  idea.    Thus :  never  to  be  forgotten  time,  commander 
in  chief.     [P.  D.] 

37.  Compound  such  words  as  well-to-do,  commander-in- 
chief,  and  all  three  word  combinations ;  other  compounds 
to  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible.     [Trib.] 

38.  Make  one  word  of  all  words  formed  by  the  addition 
of  "re/'  "over/'  "under,"  "sub,"  ["non"]  and  similar  pre- 
fixes.    [Trib.]     Ee-marked  (pertaining  to  price).     [P.  D.] 


Appendix  Gr  4.  253 

39.  Make    two   words    of    bondholder,    snowstorm,    and 
similar  words,  in  cases  like  the  following :     He  is  a  stock 
and  bond  holder;  rain  and  snow  storm;  also,  such  words 
as  any  one,  every  one.     [Trib.] 

40.  Compound  words  are  to  be  avoided  as  much  as  pos- 
sible.    Make  one  word  of  most  of  those  in  which  a  hyphen 
is  used.     Instances  in  which  a  hyphen   should  be  used : 
After-life,  co-education,  commander-in-chief,  good-by,  half- 
dozen,  half-century,  and  the  like  (but  half  a  dozen,  half  a 
century),    one-half    (and   all   fractions),    self-control    (and 
the  like),  under-estimate,  twenty-odd  years;   the  so-called 
science  (but  the  science,  so  called),  a  well-known  merchant 
(but  a  merchant  well  known  for  his  integrity,  etc.)  ;  up- 
stairs, B-flat.     [Trans.J 

Quotations. 

41.  Quote  names  of  papers  and  magazines  when  occurring 
in  headlines.     [Trib.] 

42.  Do  not  quote  a  solid  extract  preceded  and  followed 
by  leaded  matter.     [P.  D.] 

43.  Do  not  quote  an  extract  in  smaller  type  than  the 
main  article.     [P.  D.] 

44.  In  quoted  matter  of  more  than  one  paragraph,  quota- 
tion marks  must  be  put  at  the  beginning  of  every  paragraph. 
This  does  not  apply  to  verses  of  poetry,  however.     [Trans.] 

45.  Quote  names  of  books  (but  not  of  periodicals)  ;  names 
of  plays  (but  not  of  characters  in  them)  ;   and  names  of 
statues  and  pictures.     [Trans.] 

Miscellaneous. 

46.  "Sales  by  auction"  in  preference  to  "sales  at  auc- 
tion."    [Trans.] 

47.  Murderers  are  hanged,  pictures  are  hung.     [Trans.] 


254  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

48.  Never    say    "this    A.  M.,77    or    "  p.  M.,77    but    "this 
forenoon     (morning)/7    or     "this    afternoon     (evening)." 
[Trans.] 

49.  Spell  out  the  points  of  the  compass ;  as  north-north- 
east, not  1ST.  N.  E.     [Trans.] 

50.  Dived  is  the  past  tense  of  the  verb  to  dive,  and  not 
dove.     [Trans.] 

51.  He  pleaded  not  guilty,  not  plead.     [Trans.] 

52.  Sewerage,  the  system  of  drainage,  sewage,  the  deposit 
resulting  from  drainage.     [Trans.] 

53.  Knights  Templars.     [Trans.] 

54.  The  building  was  damaged  $2,000,  not  $2,000  worth. 
[Trans.] 

55.  Repeat  the  s  after  the  apostrophe  in  the  possessive 
case  of  proper  names ;  as  Jones's,  Edmonds's,  and  the  like ; 
but  not  in  the  plural  possessive  of  common  nouns ;  as  —  the 
Elks7  benefit ;  the  Poncas7  wrongs ;  or  after  the  words  Jesus, 
Moses,  Parnassus.     [Trans.] 

56.  Use  farther  when  distance  is  meant ;    as  —  "a  few 
miles  farther,77  "farther  on,77  "farther  down  the  lapse  of 
ages.77     "  And,  further,  I  would  say 77 ;  "  furthermore,77  "  the 
further  consideration  of  the  subject.77     [Trans.] 

57.  One7s  self,  and  not  oneself.     [Trans.] 

58.  Don't  erase  and  write  over  on  the  same  space.     Strike 
out   and   rewrite.     Interline  as  little  as  possible.     Never 
write  up  the  side  of  the  paper.     [Bl.] 

59.  Never    use    "  burglarize,77     "  jailed,77    "  Sundayed,77 
"cracked77  (a  safe).     [BL] 

60.  Never  use  such   expressions  as  "Rev.   Smith  next 
spoke,77  make  it  "Rev.  Mr.  Smith,77  "Hon.  C.  H.,77  or  "Hon. 
Mr.  Scribner.77     [BL] 

61.  Put  "  the 77  before  Rev.  and  Hon.  when  used  before  a 
proper  name ;  as  the  Rev.  Mr.  Cheney,  the  Hon.  Mr.  Dis- 
raeli, the  Rt.  Rev.  Bishop  Bourget.     [Trib.] 

62.  Omit  the  word  "  very 77  as  ordinarily  used.     [Trib.] 


Appendix  Gr  5.  255 

63.  Say  "last  ten  years/'  and  not,   "past  ten  years." 
[Trib.] 

64.  Omit  the  word  "  on  "  before  the  days  of  the  week, 
and  in  the  following  cases  :  On  the  10th  of  July ;  the  races 
on  the  first  day  of  the  meeting ;  on  yesterday ;  on  to-morrow ; 
not  otherwise.     [Trib.] 

65.  O,  and  not  oh;  without  the  comma  when  used  thus  : 
O  Lord  !    0  Liberty  !     Generally  otherwise  with  the  comma. 
[Trib.] 

66.  Distinguish  between  0  and  Oh.     The  former  is  used 
only  in  addresses  :  0  ye  people  !     0  Heavens  !     And  with- 
out any  point ;  the  latter  as  an  exclamation  :  Oh  !  oh,  for  a 
letter  from  home  !     [BL] 

67.  Use  "etc."  instead  of  "&c."     [BL] 

68.  Paragraphs  must  be  marked  plainly,  either  by  deep 
indentation,  or  the  use  of  the  mark  H".     Where  copy  is  in 
separate  sheets,  if  a  paragraph  runs  over  from  one  to  the 
next,  draw  a  diagonal  line  across  the  lower  right-hand  corner 
of  the  first,  and  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  one  fol- 
lowing.    If  a  paragraph  comes  within  a  line  or  two  of  the 
bottom  of  a  page,  begin  on  the  next  page.    Avoid  also  making 
one  within  a  line  or  two  of  the  top.     [BL] 

(,-;  H,     £4  A^J^  J'J^ 

5-  tc/i^J 

ABBREVIATIONS  USED  IN  CORRECTING  MANUSCRIPTS. 

The  following  system  of  abbreviations  is  intended  to  be 
used  by  teachers  in  marking  errors  in  the  manuscripts  of 
students.  The  references  accompanying  the  abbreviations 
will  enable  the  student  to  correct  the  errors  thus  pointed 
out  in  his  written  work,  before  handing  it  back  to  his  teacher 
for  the  second  reading.  The  references  are  to  pages  of  this 
book  and  other  rhetorics. 

P.  =  Scott  and  Denney's  Paragraph-Writing. 
K.  =  Keeler's  English  Composition. 


256  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

W.  =  Williams'  Composition  and  Rhetoric  (Rev.  and  En- 
larged ed.  1891). 

H.  =  A.  S.  Hill's  Principles  of  Rhetoric  (1891). 

C.  =  Clark's  Practical  Rhetoric  (1884). 

D.  =  D.  J.  Hill's  Elements  of  Rhetoric  and  Composition 
(1884). 

G.  =  Genung's  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric  (1887). 

MARKS  USED  IN  CORRECTING. 

a.  In  the  MS. 

The  words,  clauses,  or  sentences  to  which  the  marginal 
corrections  refer,  are  indicated  by  crossing  out,  by  under- 
scoring, or  by  inclosing  in  brackets  or  circles.  A  caret 
shows  the  point  at  which  something  is  to  be  supplied.  An 
inverted  caret  marts  the  omission  of  the  apostrophe  or  of 
quotation  marks. 

b.  In  the  Margin. 

Amb.  —  Ambiguous.     P.  pp.  268-270;  K.  pp.  114-116. 

(1)  "  Squinting  construction."    P.  p.  267 ;  K.  p.  115 ; 

G.  pp.  120-122 ;  W.  p.  82 ;  H.  p.  42 ;  C.  p.  50 ; 
D.  p.  56. 

(2)  Participle  for  clause.     P.  p.  271 ;  K.  p.  115 ;  G. 

p.  116,  §  11 ;  W.  p.  82 ;  C.  p.  51. 

Ant.  —  Antecedent  needs  attention.     P.  p.  269 ;  G.  pp.  123- 
127 ;  W.  p.  87 ;  H.  p.  72 ;  C.  p.  48 ;  D.  p.  56. 

(1)  Two  or  more  possible  antecedents. 

(2)  No  antecedent.     P.  p.  270,  271 ;  H.  p.  35. 

(3)  Relative  and  antecedent  do  not  agree.     P.  pp. 

269-271 ;  K.  p.  37 ;  H.  p.  44. 

(4)  Repeat  the  antecedent.     P.  pp.  39,  40,  270,  271 ; 

W.  p.  88;  H.  p.  110-112;  C.  p.  52. 
Cap.  —  Capitalize.     P.  p.  244,  249 ;  K.  p.  201. 
Cl.  —  Not  clear ;  vague,  obscure,  indefinite.    P.  pp.  52,  53 ;  G. 

pp.  19-21 ;  H.  pp.  72-74 ;  C.  pp.  48-55 ;  D.  p.  54. 


Appendix  Gr  5.  257 

(1)  Words  necessary  to  the  sense  omitted.     P.  p. 

272;  W.  p.  97;  H.  p.  107. 

(2)  Word  or  idea  needs  to  be  repeated.     P.  pp.  270, 

272;  G.  p.  126,  §  23,  160;  W.  p.  139;  H.  p. 
110 ;  C.  p.  49. 

(3)  Confusion  of  ideas.     P.  p.  270. 
Cnst.  —  Construction  faulty.     P.  pp.  284,  285. 

(1)  Wrong  construction.     P.  pp.  284,  285. 

(2)  Unexpected  change  of  construction.     P.  p.  284 ; 

G.  p.  164;  H.  p.  137. 

(3)  Awkward  construction.     P.  p.  284. 

(4)  Involved  causes.     P.  p.  265;  K.  p.  116;  W.  p. 

82 ;  H.  p.  139 ;  C.  p.  142 ;  D.  p.  60. 

Con.  — Connection  faulty.     P.  pp.  39-42,  273;  K.  pp.  24, 
119 ;  D.  p.  64. 

(1)  Means  of  explicit  reference   (conjunctions,  de- 

monstratives, modifications  of  sentence-struct- 
ure) not  skillfully  managed.  P.  pp.  16,  39- 
42,  273;  G.  pp.  202-205;  W.  p.  147;  H.  p. 
116 ;  C.  p.  29 ;  D.  p.  52. 

(2)  Wrong  conjunction  used.     P.  p.  273 ;  K.  p.  116 ; 

D.  p.  74. 

(3)  Connectives  used  where  they  can  be  omitted.    P. 

pp.  273, 275, 286;  G.  p.  206 ;  H.  p.  109;  C.  p.  66. 

(4)  Transitional  sentence  needed.      P.  pp.  12,  13, 

33-36,  63,  67,  68. 

(5)  Illogical  sequence.     P.  pp.  13-15. 

Cond.  —  Condense.     P.  pp.  11,  13,  68,  72,  286;  G.  pp.  154- 

159 ;  C.  p.  54. 
E.  —  Bad  English.     P.  pp.  261,  285. 

(1)  Diction  impure,  inaccurate,  or  unidiomatic.     P. 

p.  261 ;  K.  pp.  14-22 ;  G.  pp.  28^8 ;  W.  pp. 
39-62 ;  C.  p.  107 ;  D.  p.  29. 

(2)  Construction    borrowed   from   some   other   lan- 

guage.    P.  p.  285. 


258  Paragraph  -  Writing. 


.  —  Expand.     P.  pp.  24-32,  63,  271,  285  ;  G.  pp.  150-154. 

(1)  Importance  of  the  idea  demands  fuller  treatment. 

(2)  Connecting  links  omitted.    (3)  G-aps  in  the  logic. 
Fig.  —  Error  in  the  use  of  figurative  language.     P.  p.  288  ; 

K.  pp.  99-105  ;  G.  pp.  85-107. 

(1)  Mixed  metaphor.     P.  p.  288  ;  H.  p.  96  ;  C.  p.  221. 

(2)  Allusion  obscure.     P.  pp.  7-9. 

(3)  Figure  uncalled  for.     P.  p.  288. 
Gr.  —  Bad  grammar. 

(1)  Concord  in  number  or  tense  not  observed.     P.  p. 

275;  K.  p.  33;   G.  pp.  110-112;  W.  p.  49; 
H.  p.  32  ;  C.  pp.  112,  113  ;  D.  pp.  45-47. 

(2)  Use  of  shall  and  will.    P.  pp.  276-278  ;  K.  p.  35  ; 

G.  pp.  113-115  ;  W.  p.  55  ;  H.  p.  39  ;  C.  p.  84  ; 

D.  p.  48. 
Kp.  —  Out  of  keeping.     Tone  of  the  essay  not  consistently 

maintained.     P.  pp.  7-9,  260-262;  G.  p.  83; 

W.  p.  139. 

1.  c.  —  Change  capital  to  small  letter.     P.  pp.  244,  249. 
p.  —  Bad  punctuation.  P.  pp.  42-47,  245-249  ;  K.  pp.  204-208. 
pos.  —  Wrong  position.    P.  pp.  265,  268,  269,  282  ;  K.  p.  117  ; 

W.  p.  82  ;  H.  pp.  141,  142  ;  C.  p.  65  ;  D.  p.  64. 
(1)  Related  words  separated.     P.   p.  268;    G.   pp. 

117-119  ;  C.  p.  65.     (2)  Important  words  in 

unemphatic  positions.     P.  p.  283;  W.  p.  92. 

(3)  Unimportant  words  in  emphatic  positions. 

P.  p.  282  ;  K.  p.  117  ;  G.  pp.  117-122,  179-181. 
22.  _  Repetition  to  be  avoided.     P.  p.  286;  K.  p.  118;  W. 

p.  139;  H.  p.  112;  C.  p.  87;  D.  p.  63. 
Eel  —  Relative  pronoun  at  fault.     P.  pp.  274,  275;  K.  p. 

115  ;  H.  pp.  43,  44. 
(1)  Co-ordinate  for  restrictive  relative,  or  vice  versa. 

P.  pp.  274,  275;  G.  pp.  127-131;  W.  p.  88; 

H.  p.  105  ;  C.  p.  48  ;  D.  p.  49.     (2)  Relative 

may  be  omitted.    P.  p.  275  ;  G.  p.  131  ;  W.  p. 

88  ;  C.  p.  63. 


Appendix  Gf-  5.  259 

Sent.  —Wrong  form  of  sentence.     P.  pp.  15,  265,  279-281; 
K.  pp.  68-70. 

(1)  Periodic  for  loose  sentence,  or  vice  versa.     P. 

pp.  265,  279-281. 

(2)  Monotonous  recurrence  of  same  form  of  sentence. 

P.  p.  283 ;  W.  p.  169 ;  D.  pp.  73,  93-100. 
81  —  Slang. 
sp.  —  Bad  spelling. 
tr.  —  Transpose. 
U.  —  Unity  violated.     P.  pp.  4,  12,  19,  41,  260-265 ;  W.  pp. 

127-129 ;  H.  p.  183 ;  C.  p.  141. 
(1)  Sentence  contains  unrelated  ideas  or  too  many 

ideas.     P.  pp.  262,  263 ;  K.  p.  116 ;  GL  p.  176 ; 

C.  p.  141 ;  D.  p.  60.     (2)  Clauses  appended, 

or  not  properly  subordinated.    P.  p.  264 ;  K. 

p.  116;  G.  pp.  150,  176-179;  C.  p.  142;  D. 

p.  60.    (3)  Unity  of  paragraph  violated.     P. 

pp.  4,  260;  K.  p.  70;  G.  p.  194;  W.  p.  149; 

C.  pp.  29,  30 ;  D.  p.  72. 
W.  —  Weak.     P.  pp.  278-288. 

(1)  Terms  too  general.     P.  pp.  13,  14,  286;  K.  p. 

118 ;  G.  pp.  21,  22.     (2)  Anti-climax.     P.  p. 

288;  K.  p.  104;  G.  pp.  105-107;  H.  p.  135; 

C.  p.  68 ;  D.  p.  90.     (3)  Hackneyed  words  or 

phrases.     P.  p.  287 ;  W.  p.  120 ;  C.  p.  68. 
IT  —  Paragraph.     P.  pp.  10,  15,  96-101. 
No  1.  —  Do  not  paragraph. 
g>  —  Omit. 
Xor  ?  —  Error,  not  specified. 

c.   At  beginning  or  end  of  the  MS. 

One  of  the  above  marks  placed  at  the  beginning  or  end  of 
the  manuscript  warns  the  writer  against  a  prevailing  fault. 
The  general  character  of  the  manuscript  is  indicated  by  the 
following  letters :  A  —  excellent;  B  —  fair;  C  —  poor;  D  — 
very  bad,  rewrite. 


26  0  Paragrap h  -  Writing. 

APPENDIX  H. 

THE   RHETORIC   OF  THE  PARAGRAPH. 
(PRINCIPLES  ANI>  ILLUSTRATIONS.) 

1.  Method  of  Treatment.  —  There  are  three  prime  charac- 
teristics of  every  good  paragraph:    (1)  Unity,  or  oneness, 
by  means  of  which  the  reader  recognizes  that  some  one, 
particular,  significant   thing  or  idea,  and  nothing  else,  is 
being  presented ;   (2)  Clearness,  or  intelligibility,  by  means 
of  which  he  understands  what  is  said  of  that  one  thing  or 
idea;   and  (3)  Force,  or  emphasis,  by  means  of  which  both 
the  thing  or  idea  and  what  is  said  of  it  are  firmly  impressed 
on  his  mind.     We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  charac- 
teristics, first  in  its  application  to  the  paragraph  as  a  whole, 
and  secondly  in  its  application  to  the  component  elements 
of  the  paragraph ;  namely,  sentences,  clauses,  phrases,  and 
single  words.     We  shall  notice,  also,  some  of  the  common 
errors  that  hinder  the  attainment  of  Unity,  Clearness,  and 
Force  in  writing,  and  shall  deduce  principles  for  guidance. 

A.    UNITY. 

(a)    UNITY  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  WHOLE. 

2.  Two  Kinds  of  Unity.  —  In  a  good  paragraph  we  notice 
two  kinds  of  unity,  —  unity  of  idea  and  structure,  and  unity 
of  tone.     Unity  of  idea  and  structure  has  already  been  dis- 
cussed.    (See  pp.  4,  12,  23,  41.)     Unity  of  tone  requires 
that  the  paragraph  shall  at  no  point  vary  perceptibly  from 
that  level  of  thought  or  of  feeling  on  which  the  paragraph 
began.     A  commonplace  or  colloquial  remark  in  a  paragraph 
whose  prevailing  tone  is  pathetic,  a  jest  or  a  piece  of  slang 
in  a  paragraph  whose  prevailing  note  is  spiritual,  are  often 
ruinous  to  the  effect  that  would  otherwise  be  produced ;  and 


Appendix  H.  261 

a  few  words  of  bad  English  or  a  badly  chosen  figure  of 
speech,  may  work  irreparable  mischief  in  a  paragraph  which 
would,  but  for  that,  be  excellent  in  tone.  For  maintaining 
unity  of  tone  in  a  paragraph,  a  careful  selection  of  appro- 
priate details  (see  pp.  6-10,  30,  55-60),  and  of  appropriate 
words  and  images  by  which  to  express  them,  is  needful. 
Notice  the  paragraphs  on  pages  37,  40,  47,  57,  142  (middle), 
143  (last),  158  (last),  and  169  (last) ;  decide  in  each  case 
what  is  the  purpose  and  point  of  view ;  then  decide  whether 
the  tone  is  purely  intellectual,  emotional,  or  spiritual ;  and, 
finally,  mark  the  words  which  preserve  this  distinctive  tone 
throughout  the  paragraph,  and  words  which  in  tone  fall 
below  the  level  on  which  the  paragraph  begins.  Choice  of 
appropriate  words  is  the  main  consideration  in  preserving 
unity  of  tone. 

Judicious  use  of  blunt  idiomatic  expressions  should  not 
be  mistaken  for  violation  of  unity  of  tone.  In  the  following 
selection  the  italicized  words  do  not  fall  below  the  general 
tone  of  the  paragraph :  '  This  instinctive  belief,  confirmed 
by  every  other  kind  of  studious  experience,  that  all  serious 
study  must  inherently  tend  toward  isolated  specialization, 
seems  to  me  the  first  difficulty  that  besets  earnest  pupils 
who  make  a  mess  of  their  English  in  the  secondary  schools. 
Clearly  enough,  a  really  intelligent  teacher  can  explain  it 
away.  The  process  may  involve  vexatiously  tedious  reiter- 
ation of  good  sense;  but  such  reiteration  ought  to  do  the 
business.9 

3.  Unity  of  Tone  not  Maintained.  — '  The  sight  oppressed 
me  with  sorrow,  my  heart  swelled  into  my  throat,  my  eyes 
filled  with  tears,  /  couldn't  stand  it  any  longer,  and  I  left.7 
Better,  'I  could  no  longer  endure  the  painful  scene,  and 
turned  sadly  away.' 

'  He  prays  that  his  friends  grieve  not  at  his  death/  Better, 
'  will  not  grieve,' 


262  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

'My  greatest  difficulties  in  writing  were  organizing  and 
classifying  material,  formulating  outlines,  and  adhering  to 
said  (better,  the)  outlines.' 

6  Again  last  year  he  w^as  elected  to  that  high  office  by  such 
a  majority  that  his  opponent  did  not  know  which  end  he 
stood  on.'  Better,  <by  an  overwhelming  majority.' 

'  The  best  side  of  the  boy's  nature  was  aroused  by  these 
potent  stimuli.'  Better,  '  influences,'  or  '  incentives.' 

'The  odor  of  the  blossoms,  or  of  the  gum,  or  the  height 
of  the  place,  makes  me  dizzy,  (Omit)  or  I  have  become  dizzy 
from  something  else.'  See  also  page  7  (bottom). 

4.  Construct  and  arrange  sentences  in  a  way  to  give  unity  of 
structure ;  choose  and  arrange  words  and  images  in  a  way  to 
give  unity  of  tone,, 

(6)    UNITY  OF  SINGLE  SENTENCES  IN  A  PARAGRAPH. 

5.  Division  of  the  Subject.  —  Each   sentence   must   con- 
tribute to  the  unity  of  the  paragraph ;  and  each  must  have 
a  unity  of  its  own,  in  the  number  and  relationship  of  its 
ideas  (pp.  42-47),  in  the  subordination  of  its  parts  (pp.  37, 
41),  and  in  its  form  as  a  whole  (pp.  36,  38).     The  most 
common  violations  of  these  three  requirements  are,  (1)  put- 
ting too  many  ideas,  or  unrelated  or  insignificant  ideas  in 
one  sentence,  (2)  failing  to  keep  prominent  the  main  subject 
or  idea  of  a  sentence,  or  failing  to  keep  subsidiary  details 
subordinate,  and  (3)  failing  to  adjust  the  form  of  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole  to  the  requirements  of  the  paragraph. 

6.  (1)   Too  Many  Ideas  in  One  Sentence.  — '  The  Church 
and  Parliament,  always  conservative  when  ftieir  own  privi- 
leges are  threatened  (proofs  of  which  fact  may  be  found  in 
every  chapter  of  English  History),  created  a  strong  opposi- 
tion to  his  claims,  —  claims  which  to  them  appeared  arro- 
gant, —  so  he  pretended,  for  a  time,  to  favor  each,  in  order 


Appendix  IT.  263 

to  weaken  their  hostility;  but,  at  last,  he  threw  off  the 
mask,  and  opposed  them  openly.'  This  sentence  is  correct, 
but  it  attempts  to  say  too  many  things.  There  is  material 
in  it  for  three  sentences.  Omit  the  matter  in  parenthesis, 
which  is  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  word  always;  put 
periods  after  arrogant  and  hostility,  and  revise  the  three 
sentences  thus  formed. 

7.  Unrelated  Ideas  in  One  Sentence.  — '  The  new  Congress- 
man comes  of  good  old  New  England  stock,  is  in  favor 
of  tariff-reform,  and  at  present  resides  at  Washington  Court 
House,  the  town  which  gained  an  unenviable  notoriety  last 
year  on  account  of  the  mob  attack  on  the  jail.'     Omit  the 
last  eighteen  words;  they  are  of  no  significance  in  giving 
an  idea  of  the  new  Congressman.     Better,  'The  new  Con- 
gressman is   at  present  a  resident  of  Washington   Court 
House.     He  comes  of  good  old  New  England  stock  (insert 
in  this  sentence  another  item  or  two,  relative  to  his  ances- 
try, or  stock-characteristics).    He  is  in  favor  of  tariff-reform' 
(add  to  this  one  or  two  related  particulars,  in  order  to  justify 
separate  sentence-statement). 

'  The  University  was  organized  by  Act  of  Legislature  in 
1837,  and  is  a  wonderful  testimony  to  the  efficiency  of  govern- 
ment by  the  people  and  for  the  people.'  Better,  '  The  Uni- 
versity was  organized  by  Act  of  Legislature  in  1837.  Its 
rapid  growth  is  a  wonderful  testimony,'  etc. 

8.  The  parts  of  each  sentence,  whatever  its  length  or  the 
number  of  its  details,  should  all  bear  a  close  relation  to  one 
principal  idea. 

9.  A  long  parenthetical  statement  should  be  omitted  if  not 
clearly  needed,    If  needed,  it  should  either  be  organized  into  a 
separate  sentence,   or  be  shortened  and  closely  knit   into  the 
subordinate  texture  of  the  sentence  to  which  it  belongs, 


264  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

10.  (2)  Subordination  Badly  Managed.  — '  This  revolt,  con- 
ducted by  Senara  against  the  Empire  of   Brazil,  resulted 
in  his  being  declared  President  of  the  Brazilian  Republic.' 
(The  important  fact  is  that  a  Eepublic  was  established.) 
Better,  'This  revolt,  conducted  by  Senara  against  the  Em- 
pire of  Brazil,  resulted  in  the  establishment  of  the  Brazilian 
Eepublic,  of  which  Senara  was  declared  President.' 

'  In  case  the  President  should  die  while  in  office,  a  near 
election  might  be  an  advantage ;  for  a  man  living  in  a 
"  doubtful "  state  like  New  York  is  frequently  chosen  Vice 
President,  not  because  he  is  a  statesman,  and  should  the 
Presidency  devolve  on  him,  he  would  prove  incompetent, 
and  hence  an  early  opportunity  to  select  another  would  be 
desirable.'  Better,  '  In  case  the  President  should  die  while 
in  office,  a  near  election  might  be  an  advantage.  For  the 
Vice  President,  chosen,  as  he  frequently  is,  not  because  he 
is  a  statesman,  but  solely  because  he  lives  in  a  "  doubtful " 
state  like  New  York,  might  prove  to  be  an  incompetent 
President.  In  this  event,  an  early  opportunity  to  select 

another  would  be  desirable.' 

<•> 

11.  Subordinate  details  should  be  kept  subordinate  in  form 
of  statement, 

12.  Appended  Phrases  and  Clauses.  —  '  At  present,  in  the 
House  of  Refuge,  religious  exercises  are  held  without  re- 
gard to  the   classification,  of  the   inmates  with   regard  to 
the  sect  of  which  they  are  adherents.'     Better,  6  At  present, 
in  the  House  of  Refuge,  religious  exercises  are  held  without 
regard  to  the  sectarian  preferences  of  the  inmates.' 

'You  will  not  find  a  more  courageous  President,  among 
those  who  have  held  the  office  of  late  years,  at  least.' 
Better,  '  Among  all  of  our  presidents,  at  least  among  those 
who  have  held  the  office  of  late,  you  will  not  find  a  better 
example  of  courage.' 


Appendix  H.  265 

'  Among  the  guests  is  one  whose  name  is  honored  by  all 
luhose  lives  have  been  made  better  by  Ms  writings  (see  §  14) 
and  whose  presence  affords  us  the  greatest  pleasure.' 
Better,  ( Among  the  guests  is  one  whose  name  is  honored 
wherever  lives  have  been  made  better  by  his  writings. 
His  presence  affords  us  the  greatest  pleasure.' 

'  In  the  second  panel  we  are  shown  at  the  right  a  small 
palm-tree  by  whose  side  is  another  from  behind  which  three 
Indians  are  timidly  peeping  at  Columbus  and  his  followers 
who  have  just  landed.'  Better,  'In  this  panel  we  are 
shown  the  landing  of  Columbus  and  his  followers.  At  the 
right  are  two  palm-trees ;  from  behind  one  of  them  three 
Indians  are  timidly  peeping.' 

13.  Appended  phrases  and  clauses  should  be  reduced  to  in- 
conspicuous forms  or  transferred  to  inconspicuous  positions, 

14.  A  subordinate  clause  within  a  subordinate  clause  should 
not  be  clothed  in  the  same  form  of  words  as  clauses  of  higher 
rank,    Beware  of  involved  clauses, 

15.  (3)  Loose  for  Periodic  Sentence.  — '  Serfs  were  com- 
pelled  to  pay   for   their  land   and   shelter.     They  gave  a 
percentage  of  all  they  raised  and  of   all  the  game  they 
might   capture,   to  their  lord,  as  part  payment.'      Better, 
'  As   part   payment   they  gave  to  their  lord  a  percentage 
both  of  all  they  raised  and  of  all  the  game  they  might 
capture.' 

16.  Change  a  loose  to  a  periodic   sentence  (see   p.  16,  top), 
or  vice  versa,  when  the  change  will   result  in  a  closer  continua- 
tion of  the   thought  of  the   preceding   sentence,      (Even  when 
clearness  is  attained  by  a  certain  ordering  of  parts,  further 
rearrangement  will  often  better  the  unity  both  of  the  sen- 
tence and  of  the  paragraph.) 


266  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

B.   CLEARNESS. 
PERSPICUITY,  OR  CLEARNESS  OP  THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  WHOLE. 

17.  Sow  Perspicuity  may  be  Secured.  —  Each  sentence  in 
a  paragraph  may  be  clear  in  meaning,  and  yet  the  paragraph, 
as  a  whole,  may  lack  clearness.     This  is  true  of  the  para- 
graph on  page  107  and  of  that  at  the  bottom  of  page  109. 
Clearness  of  the  paragraph,  as  a  whole,  is  more  conveniently 
and  accurately  called  Perspicuity.   Perspicuity  depends  upon 
paragraph-structure  (pp.  24-54),  upon  the  order  (pp.  13-15) 
and   connection  (pp.   40-42)   of   sentences,  and   especially 
upon  the  sufficient  use  of  repetition  (p.  25),  definition  (p.  26), 
explanation,  illustration,  and  details  (pp.  28-31).     Propor- 
tion (p.  10,  bottom),  sequence  and  grouping  (pp.  69,  73), 
and  careful  planning  (pp.  77-81)  must  be  attended  to  by 
the  writer  who  would  be  perspicuous  in  style. 

18.  To  secure  perspicuity,  observe  the  laws  of  sequence  and 
grouping,  see  that  each  thought  is  stated  and  illustrated  with 
sufficient  fulness,  and  attend  to  the  connection  of  related  sentences. 

CLEARNESS  OF  SINGLE  SENTENCES  IN  A  PARAGRAPH. 

19.  Division  of  the  /Subject.  —  As  in  the  paragraph,  so  in 
the  sentence,  clearness  is  a  problem  of  sequence,  grouping, 
and  placing  of  parts,  a  problem  of  pointing  out  relations  and 
connections  between  parts,  of  using  a  sufficient  number  of 
words  and  of  using  them  accurately.     When  a  qualifying 
word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  not  so  placed  as  to  indicate,  with 
certainty,  what  word  or  words  it  qualifies,  we  have  (1)  the 
squinting  construction,  or  (2)  ambiguity  resulting  from  the 
separation  of  words  that  ought  to  be  close  together.     When 
reference-words  do  not  point  out  with  unerring  accuracy  the 
words  to  which  they  refer,  (3)  the  antecedent  is  often  hard 


Appendix  H.  267 

to  detect,  or  when  found  is  seen  to  be  incommensurate  with 
the  reference  word.  (4)  The  words  of  reference  chosen  may 
be  too  vague  and  indefinite  to  suggest  the  antecedent,  and 
(5)  confusion  of  ideas  may  result  from  the  fact  that  no  ante- 
cedent is  expressed  to  which  the  words  of  reference  may 
refer.  When  words  are  not  employed  in  sufficient  numbers, 
a  participle  may  be  left  without  a  word  in  the  sentence  to 
which  it  may  attach  itself,  in  which  event  we  may  have  (6)  a 
case  of  unrelated  or  of  misrelated  participle.  The  participle 
carries  with  it  several  implications  of  meaning,  hence  it  is 
sometimes  necessary  (7)  to  expand  a  participle  into  a  clause 
in  order  to  indicate  the  precise  implication  of  meaning  in- 
tended. (8)  Words  have  to  be  inserted  or  repeated  in  form 
or  substance  when  their  omission  would  cause  ambiguity. 
(9)  An  infinitive  of  purpose,  when  used  in  connection  with 
an  infinitive  in  another  function,  requires  the  insertion  of 
additional  distinguishing  words.  When  words  are  not  used 
accurately  in  pointing  out  relations  between  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, lack  of  clearness  is  sure  to  result.  Inaccuracies  result- 
ing in  obscurity  or  ambiguity  are  most  frequent  (10)  in  the 
use  of  connectives  and  (11)  relative  pronouns,  (12)  in  the 
use  of  number  and  tense  and  (13)  in  the  use  of  will  and 
shall.  We  shall  now  consider  in  order  these  thirteen  viola- 
tions of  clearness. 

20.  (1)  Squinting  Construction.  —  When  a  phrase  or  clause 
is  so  placed  that  it  may  equally  well  be  understood  to  refer  to 
what  precedes  it  and  to  what  follows  it,  it  is  said  to  squint. 

'He  thought  his  choice  of  elective  studies,  at  all  events, 
as  good  as  the  average.  (Insert  (1)  was  after  studies,  or 
(2)  at  all  events  after  good,  or  (3)  after  choice,  or  (4)  before 
He,  —  according  to  the  meaning.) 

<A  Senate  of  rich  men  holding  their  seats  by  bribing 
legislatures,  to  tell  the  truth,  will  not  longer  be  tolerated.' 
Better  (1)  'will  not  (to  speak  plainly)  be  tolerated  any 


268  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

longer ' ;  or  (2)  ( holding  their  seats  (if  the  truth  were  known) 
by  bribing/  etc. 

'  A  literary  education  in  the  minds  of  some  people  seems 
to  be  unnecessary.'  (Place  the  italicized  words  first.) 

21.  Guard  against  the  squinting  construction,    Place  phrases 
and  clauses  in  unambiguous  positions, 

22.  (2)  Related  Words  Separated.  — '  He  looked  back  upon 
those  years  spent  in  wandering  about  Europe  with  regret.7 
Better,  ( He  looked  back  with  regret  upon/  etc. 

'He  speaks  on  too  deep  topics  to  be  readily  understood 
by  the  ordinary  man.'  Better3  'On  topics  too  deep  to  be 
readily  understood/  etc. 

'  It  is  not  impossible  that  future  ages  may  develop  a  means 
of  expressing  thoughts  and  feelings  to  us  unknown.'  Better, 
6  Future  ages  may  express  their  thoughts  and  feelings  by 
some  means  to  us  unknown.' 

'  During  my  junior  year  there  was  some  work  in  composi- 
tion in  connection  with  the  work  in  *English  that  continued 
through  the  whole  year.'  Better,  '  During  my  junior  year, 
in  connection  with  the  work  in  English,  there  was  some 
work  in  composition  that  continued/  etc. 

'  Eed  Cap  would  not  shake  hands  with  or  even  allow  any- 
one to  touch  him  that  he  did  not  like.'  Better,  'Red  Cap 
would  not  shake  hands  with  anyone  that  he  did  not  like,  or 
even  allow  such  a  person  to  touch  him.' 

'  He  derives  his  power  from,  and  should  always  hold  him- 
self responsible  to,  the  people.'  Better,  'He  derives  his 
power  from  the  people,  and  should  always  hold  himself 
responsible  to  them.'  (Or,  to  the  people.)  See  §  24. 

'  He  only  thought  he  could  stay  a  few  days.'  Better,  '  He 
thought  he  could  stay  only  a  few  days.' 

'He  only  (use  alone)  was  able  to  work  the  hard  problems.' 

6  To  so  act  is  foolish ! '  Better,  80  to  act,  or  To  act  so. 
See  §  26. 


Appendix  H.  269 

'  He  put  himself  on  the  defensive,  not  against  the  whole 
world,  but  against  those  whom  he  had  found  it  necessary  to 
be  on  the  defensive  towards.'  (Better,  towards  whom.)  See 
§  27. 

6  They  not  only  intend  to  pass  another  low-tariff  bill,  but 
also  a  free-silver  bill.'  Better,  'They  intend  to  pass  not 
only  another  low-tariff  bill,  but  also  a  free-silver  bill.7 

23.  Bring  related  words  as  close  together  as  possible, 

24.  Avoid  the  '  splitting  of  particles,'  that  construction  by 
which  the  emphasis  is  suspended  upon  a  preposition  and  is  de- 
layed there  until  another  preposition,  referring  to  the  same  word, 
is  passed, 

25.  Distinguish  between  'only'  and  'alone,'    Place  a  single- 
word  adverb  (such  as  the  word  '  only ')  immediately  before  the 
word  or  expression  that  it  modifies, 

26.  Do  not  separate  the  infinitive  from  its  sign  'to,' 

27.  When  possible,  place  the  preposition  immediately  before 
the  word  to  which  it  refers,     The  prepositions  that  can  best 
stand  at  the  end  of  a  sentence  are  to,  for,  of,  by,  and  these  will 
not  bear  a  separation  of  more  than  two  or  three  words  from  their 
idea-word,  even  in  idiomatic  expressions, 

28.  Be  careful  to  place  'not  only  —  but  also,'   '  either— or,' 
'both  — and,'   immediately  before  the   corresponding   words  to 
which  they  refer, 

29.  (3)  Antecedent  needs  Attention.  —  *A  brother  of  Gen- 
eral Sherman*  who  was  sitting  near  by,  corrected  the  state- 
ment.'     Better,  6  General  Sherman's  brother,  who/  etc.,  or, 
'  A  brother  of  General  Sherman,  while  the  General  himself 
was  sitting  near  by/  etc.  —  according  to  the  meaning  in- 
tended.    See  §  33. 

•Everybody  found  it  best  for  their  (their  should  be  his) 
health  to  shun  the  place.' 


270  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

'  The  injured  man  with  the  whole  circle  of  his  relations 
and  friends  rose  in  their  (their  should  be  his)  fury  to  wreak 
vengeance  on  the  offender.7 

*  He  whispered  that  the  enemy  were  all  about  us,  which 
would  have  terrified  me  under  other  circumstances.'  See 
§  35.  (For  which  substitute  an  announcement  that,  or  a 
method  of  communication  that,  —  according  to  the  meaning.) 

30.  (4)  Ambiguous  Words  of  Reference. — '  Topography  in 
a  broader  sense  may  be  represented  approximately  by  hatch- 
ings or  by  washes  of  color.     Very  beautiful  effects  may  be 
produced  in  this  way.7     (Better,  by  these  methods.)     See  §  36. 

'  At  that  time  Doctor  and  Master  were  synonymous,  but 
when  an  initiatory  stage  of  discipline  was  prescribed,  each 
term  became  significant  of  a  certain  rank,  and  was  called  a 
step  or  degree  ;  this  was  instituted  by  Gregory  IX.'  Better, 
'this  change/  or  'this  distinction.' 

'  Composition  has  always  been  hard  for  me,  and  I  must 
confess  that  the  encyclopaedia  has  been  in  that  connection 
my  closest  friend.'  Better,  'I  must  confess  that  in  the 
preparation  of  my  essays  the  encyclopaedia,'  etc. 

'  There  has  been  a  small-pox  scare,  but  it  has  been  stamped 
out  entirely.  At  one  time  it  looked  as  if  it  would  spread 
over  the  entire  city,  but  it  is  over  now.'  (Substitute  for  the 
first  it,  '  the  disease ' ;  for  it  looked  as  if  it,  '  we  thought  the 
disease ' ;  for  the  last  it,  '  the  scare.')  See  page  40. 

31.  (5)  Confusion  of  Ideas.  — '  A  seven-year  term  would 
cause  the  President  to  make  his  administration  the  best  of 
those  who  had  held  the  office.9     See  §  32.     Better,  'A  seven- 
year  term  would  enable  the  President  to  make  his  adminis- 
tration better  than  any  former  administration.' 

( Where  can  you  find  a  more  enthusiastic  crowd  than  a 
body  of  college  students  ?  '  Better,  '  Where  can  you  find 
greater  enthusiasm  than  in  a  crowd  of  college  students  ? ' 


Appendix  H.  271 

32.  Guard  against  using  a  relative  clause  that  has  no  antecedent, 

33.  Be  sure  that  the  antecedent  to  which  a  relative  refers  is 
clear  and  unmistakable, 

i 

34.  Singular  antecedents  require  singular  pronouns  of  reference ; 
relative  and  antecedent  should  agree  in  number, 

35.  Eepeat  an  idea  when  the  relative  alone  is  not  sufficient 
for  clearness. 

36.  Words  of  reference  should  denote  accurately  the  number 
and  character  of  the  antecedent, 

37.  (6)  Misrelated  and    Unrelated  Participle.  — '  Having 
proved  compulsory  education  necessary,  it  remains  (add,  for 
us)  to  prove  it  beneficial  and  expedient.' 

'  Accustomed  from  childhood  to  hearing  incorrect  speech, 
systematic  drill  is  needed  in  the  schools.'  '  Accustomed 
from  childhood  to  hearing  incorrect  speech,  pupils  need 
systematic  drill  in  the  use  of  good  English.7 

38.  A  participle  usually  requires  that  a  word  be  expressed  with 
which  it  may  agree,     Supply  the  word  when  omission  would  cause 

ambiguity. 

1 

39.  (7)  Participle  for   Clause.  —  '  Eeduced    to    his    last 
dollar,  he  felt  that  he  was  ready  for  any  emergency.'     (Sup- 
ply before  reduced,  When  he  was,  If  he  were,  Whenever  he 
was,  Since  he  was,  Though  he  was,  Because  he  was,  or  After 
he  was,  according  to  the  meaning  intended.) 

'The  skeletons  in  the  vault,  exposed  to  the  air,  turned 
suddenly  to  dust.'  Better,  'when  they  were  exposed/  or 
'if  they  were  exposed.' 

40.  Supplant  a  participle  by  a  clause  whenever  more  than  one 
interpretation  is  possible, 


272  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

41.  (8)  Omission  of  Necessary  Words.  — '  Republics  are  not 
desirable  (insert   if,  because,  since,  ivhenever,   or   wherever) 
unaccompanied  by  intelligence.' 

'He  was  generous  to  all  who  had  aided  him  to  acquire 
wealth,  and  (insert  to)  his  business  partner  especially.7 

'  When  he  came  to  his  majority,  after  a  long  struggle  with 
poverty  and  hardship,  and  (substitute  when)  more  prosper- 
ous days  began  for  him,  and  (insert  when)  he  found  himself 
influential,  he  repaid  all  those  who  had  helped  him.' 

'He  said  that  he  meant  no  offence  and  (repeat  that  he) 
intended  to  repair  the  mischief.' 

'He  reported  that  there  were  two  applicants  for  the 
degree  of  Master  in  Pharmacy,  (repeat  a  degree)  for  which 
the  University  had  not  yet  provided.' 

'For  many  years  we  have  been  troubled  with  disputes 
about  the  various  fisheries,  (repeat  disputes)  which  might 
be  in  large  measure  done  away  with  by  the  appointment  of 
a  commission/ 

'  They  could  do  nothing  further  until  the  war  closed  and 
cooler  counsels  prevailed.'  (Eepeat  until  before  cooler,  or 
substitute  so  for  and,  according  to  the  meaning  intended.) 

42.  Kepeat  a  word  when  its  omission  would  cause  ambiguity, 

43.  (9)  Infinitives  in   Different    Offices.  —  'He    loved    to 
give  to  the  poor,  to  show  them  that  he  was  their  friend.' 
The  two  offices  indicated :   '  He  loved  to  give  to  the  poor  in 
order  to  show  them  that  he  was  their  friend  5 '  or  the  mean- 
ing may  be,  'He  loved  to  give  to  the  poor,  and,  in  other 
ways,  to  show  them  that  he  was  their  friend.' 

'  It  is  not  every  one  who  knows  just  how  much  tension 
a  brush  needs  (insert  in  order)  to  secure  good  contact.' 

44.  Make  it  plain  whether  an  infinitive  is  co-ordinate  with  a 
preceding  infinitive  or  is  dependent,     Distinguish  a  subjective,  an 
objective,  or  a  complementary  infinitive  from  an  infinitive  of  purpose, 


Appendix  H.  273 

45.  (10)  Connection  Faulty.  —  'The  Church  and  Parlia- 
ment created  a  strong  opposition  to  his  claims ;  and  (better, 
so)  he  pretended,  for  a  time,  to  favor  each,  in  order  to 
weaken  their  hostility.  But  at  last  he  threw  off  the  mask/  etc. 

6  In  Germany  and  England  the  military  expenditure  goes 
on  as  before,  and  (better,  while)  in  Italy  the  cost  of  the 
army  has  bankrupted  the  country.' 

'The  snow  had  been  falling  for  several  days,  and  was 
now  nearly  three  feet  deep;  but  (better,  nevertheless)  Mr. 
Smith  considered  it  necessary  to  go  to  the  Zoological 
Laboratory.' 

6  Landor  lacks  the  power  of  attraction  which  we  find  in 
writers  of  great  genius;  (omit  and)  and  though  a  classic 
in  the  best  sense,  he  will  never  be  widely  read.' 

'The  prospects  of  the  team,  against  Harvard,  are  not 
flattering,  and  (add  even)  against  the  smaller  eastern  col- 
leges we  cannot  hope  for  much.' 

'  Austria  and  Prussia  and  (better,  together  with)  the  whole 
body  of  the  German  states,  fell  upon  this  feeble  kingdom.' 

'  Hawthorne,  the  author  of  '  Twice  Told  Tales,'  and  who 
was  a  contemporary  of  Irving,  speaks  of  Irving's  humor.' 
(Omit  and.)  See  §  48. 

'His  was  a  character  of  sterling  integrity,  and  which 
deserves  to  be  imitated.'  (Better,  '  His  was  a  character  of 
sterling  integrity  and  worthy  of  imitation.')  See  §  48. 

'  It  is  often  necessary  to  make  a  careful  examination  for 
the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  exact  form  of  the  ground 
and  to  construct  a  map  that  can  be  followed.'  (Better,  in 
order  to  ascertain,  etc.,  and  in  order  to  construct.)  See  §  49. 

'  They  wanted  to  make  the  weekly  meeting  not  so  much 
a  social  force,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  a  means  of  cultivating 
oratory.'  Better,  'not  so  much  a  social  force  as  a  means,' 
etc. 

'  His  manners  were  not  acquired,  but  natural,  but  (better, 
yet)  he  never  felt  awkward  in  society.'  See  §  50. 


274  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

46.  Distinguish  different  degrees  and  different  kinds  of  con- 
nection in  such  words  as  and,  so,  while,  whereas,  even,  together 
with,  since,  hence,  because,  for,  etc, 

47.  Do  not  overwork  the  words  and,  of,  etc, 

48.  And  cannot  be  used  with  who  or  which  unless  a  correspond- 
ing who  or  which  has  been  used  in  the  same  sentence,  or  has  been 
clearly  implied, 

49.  Introduce  by  similar  words,  clauses  or  phrases  which  perform 
similar  functions, 

50.  In  the  same  sentence  do  not  use  the  word  'but'  in  two 
functions,     Distinguish  between  the  larger  and  smaller  contrasts 
in  a  sentence  by  using  different  conjunctions, 

51.  (11)    Relative  Pronoun  at  Fault.  —  The  relative  pro- 
noun that  is  restrictive,  and  introduces  a  clause  that  closely 
defines,  limits,  or  qualifies  the  antecedent.     A  that-cl&use 
affects   the   antecedent   as   an  adjective   would   affect  the 
antecedent.     Who  and  which  are  co-ordinating  relatives,  and 
introduce,   not   a  modifying    thought,   but    an    additional 
thought  of  equal  or  greater  importance.      Who  is   equiva- 
lent to  a  conjunction  plus  a  personal  pronoun,  and  may  be 
translated  by  the  words  and  he,  and  they,  though  he,  though 
they,  for  he,  since  they,  etc.,  which  words  may  often  be  used, 
with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  who.      Which  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  conjunction  plus  the  word  it,  this,  these,  those,  and 
may  be  translated  by  the  words  and  this,  and  it,  and  these, 
a  fact  that,  a  circumstance  that,  etc.,  which  words  may  often 
be  used,  with  a  gain  to  clearness,  instead  of  which.     Who 
and  which  are  sometimes   used  restrictively,  without  loss 
of  clearness,  instead  of  the  strictly  correct  that  (1)  when 
the  use  of  that  would  make  a  harsh  combination,  (2)  when 
the  word  that  has  already  been  used   in  another   function 
in  the  same  sentence,  and  (3)  when  the  use  of  that  would 
throw  a  preposition  to  the  end  of  the  sentence. 


Appendix  ff.  275 

The  aid  of  punctuation  may  be  called  in  to  distinguish 
restrictive  from  co-ordinative  who  or  which.  Since  a  comma 
is  usually  inserted  before  a  co-ordinate  relative,  the  omission 
of  punctuation  before  ivho  or  ivhich  will  give  to  the  clause 
a  restrictive  force. 

<  He  asked  me  who  (whom,  is  correct)  I  expected.' 

'  Whom  (who,  is  correct)  do  you  think  would  wear  such 
a  thing  ? ' 

'  Nothing  which  (better,  that)  could  add  to  their  comfort 
was  forgotten.' 

4  He  gave  up  his  law  practice  that  (better, ( his  law  prac- 
tice which ')  he  had  built  up  only  after  years  of  hard  work.' 

'The  society  has  twenty  members  that  (or  ' members 
who')  intend  to  make  this  their  life-work.'  (Who  would 
imply  a  total  membership  of  but  twenty.  That  implies  a 
larger  membership.) 

6  There  is  a  saloon  next  door  that  (or,  which)  is  a  nuisance.' 
(That  implies  that  the  saloon  is  a  nuisance.  Which  implies 
that  its  being  next  door  is  a  nuisance.) 

'  That  man  was  the  first  that  saw  (better,  to  see)  what 
was  needed.' 

6  This  is  the  town  that  you  mentioned.'  Better,  ( This  is 
the  town  you  mentioned.' 

52.  Distinguish  between  the  restrictive  relative  that  and  the 
co-ordinating  relatives,  who  and  which. 

53.  That  may  sometimes  be  omitted  with  a  gain  to  clearness, 

54.  Eecast  a  whole  sentence  if  necessary  to  avoid  the  use  of 
that  in  two  functions, 

55.  (12)   Lack  of  Concord  in  Number  or   Tense.  — '  No 
one  knew  his  age,  but  it  would  not  have  been  difficult  to  have 
guessed  it.'     (Corrected :  to  guess  it.)     See  §  56. 

'  He  said  that  honesty  was  the  best  policy.'  (Better,  is.) 
See  §  57. 


276  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

'As  civilization  advanced,  they  began  to  feel  that  the 
sweetest  thing  man  possessed  is  liberty.'  (Better,  possesses.) 

'He  had  never,  put  aside  the  old  and  narrow  idea  that 
higher  education  was  for  men  alone.'  (Better,  is.) 

6  Sometimes  we  have  been  attracted  by  the  melodies  that 
have  floated  towards  us,  and  drew  near  to  discover  the 
source.'  (Better,  '  have  drawn  near.') 

'He  came  to  the  hill,  and,  watching  his  chance,  slyly 
creeps  near  the  game;  then  he  raised  his  gun.'  (Either,  came, 
crept,  raised;  or,  comes,  creeps,  raises.)  See  §  58. 

'Each  of  these  men  were  great  financiers.'  (Both  were, 
etc. ;  or,  each  was  a  great  financier.) 

'  There  are  (is)  one  of  these  rooms  on  each  corner.' 

'The  beautiful  location  of  the  school,  together  with  its 
many  historical  associations,  make  it  a  delightful  place  to 
visit.'  (Make  should  be  makes.) 

'  Thus,  through  his  avarice,  his  honor  as  well  as  his  prop- 
erty and  business  enterprises  were  gone.'  (Were  should  be 
was.) 

'The  number  of  co-educational  colleges  have  increased.' 
(Have  should  be  has.) 

56.  In  dependent  clauses  and  infinitives  reckon  the  tense  rela- 
tively to  the  tense  of  the  principal  verb, 

57.  According  to  the  usage  of  most  good  writers,  general  truths 
require  the  present  tense,  irrespective  of  the  tense  of  the  principal 
verb, 

58.  Consistency  in  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  of  a  sentence  should 
be  maintained  throughout, 

59.  The  verb  should  agree  with  its  subject  in  number* 

60.  (13)  Witt,  Shall,  Would,  Should.  —  (1)  In  the  simple 
future,  shall  is  used  in  the  first  person,  and  will  in  the  second 
and  third  persons ;  thus,  '  I,  or  we,  shall  enjoy  reading  the 


Appendix  H.  277 

book/  and  'You,  he,  or  they  will  enjoy  reading  the  book.' 

(2)  In  sentences  expressing  determination,  will  is  used  in 
the  first  person,  and  shall  in  the  second  and  third  persons ; 
thus,  '  I,  or  we,  will  obey '  and  '  You,  he,  or  they  shall  obey.' 

(3)  In  questions,  the  same  distinction  between  shall  and  will 
as  expressing  simple  futurity  or  determination  is  seen  in 
the  following :  '  Shall  I,  or  we  ? '  (simple  future,  or  equivalent 
to  '  do  you  wish  me  or  us  to  ? ')  ;  '  Will  I  ? '  (ironical)  ;  '  Shall 
you  subscribe  ? '  (mere  information  desired)  ;  '  Will  you  sub- 
scribe ? '  (I  want  you  to)  ;  '  Shall  he  or  they  ? '  (Do  you  wish 
him  or  them  to  ?)  ;  '  Will  he  or  they  ? '  (mere  information 
desired.)     (4)  In  secondary  clauses  the  reporter  uses  will, 
if  the  speaker  used  or  would  have  used  will;  shall  if  the 
speaker  used  or  would  have  used  shall.     Thus :   Speaker,  — 
6 1  shall  enjoy  reading  the  book ' ;    Reporter,  — '  He  says  he 
shall  enjoy  reading  the  book ' ;  Speaker,  — '  I  will  not  allow 
it ' ;  Reporter,  — '  He  says  he  will  not  allow  it ' ;   Speaker,  — 
6  You  (or  they)  shall  seek  in  vain  for  it ' ;   Reporter,  — '  He 
says  you  (or  they)  shall  seek,'  etc.     (5)  Should  corresponds 
to  shall,  and  would  to  will,  following  corresponding  rules. 
Thus,  in  reporting  the   sentences    just  given,  the  correct 
form  would  be,  'He  said  he  should  enjoy  reading  the  book/ 
'He  said  he  would  not  allow  it/  'He  said  you  (or  they) 
should  seek  in  vain  for  it.'     (6)  In  conditional  clauses  ex- 
ceptional care  is  needed,  though  the  same  distinctions  are 
maintained. 

'He  tells  me  that  he  will  be  twenty-one  years  old  next 
month.'  (No  determination.  Will  should  be  shall.) 

'We  would  be  pleased  to  have  you  call.'  (Should  is  cor- 
rect. Would,  implying  determination  to  be  pleased,  is 
impolite  as  well  as  incorrect.) 

'  If  he  should  come  to-morrow,  ivould  you  be  surprised  ?  ' 
(Should  is  correct.) 

'  What  would  we  do  with  Samoa  if  we  would  succeed  in 
annexing  it  ? '  (Use  should  in  both  cases.) 


278  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

61.  With  the  first  person,  shall  denotes  simple  futurity,  and  will 
denotes  determination,     With  the  second  and  third  persons,  shall 
denotes  determination,  and  will  denotes  simple  futurity,     Should 
follows  the  rule  of  shall  and  would  follows  the  rule  of  will. 

62.  Keport  what  another  has  said,  thought,  known,  or  felt,  by 
using  the  verb  that  he,  speaking  in  the  first  person,  would  have 
used,     If  the   dependence  of  tense  requires,  change  his  shall  to 
should,  and  his  will  to  would. 


C.     FORCE. 
(a)  FORCE  OF  THE  PARAGRAPH  AS  A  WHOLE. 

63.  How  Force  may  be  Secured.  —  Each  paragraph  carries 
with  it  a  certain  weight  and  value  for  the  reader.  This  weight 
and  value  is  due  primarily  to  the  character  of  the  thought  and 
emotion  with  which  the  paragraph  is  freighted ;  but,  since 
thought  and  emotion  gain  or  lose  according  to  the  way  in 
which  they  are  presented,  the  writer  must  take  into  account 
style  as  an  element  of  force.  The  style  must  correspond  to 
the  character  of  the  thought  and  emotion.  Some  thoughts 
and  emotions  are  by  nature  less  forcible  than  others;  the 
attempt  to  overcharge  with  force  a  weak  or  commonplace 
thought  leads  to  bombast.  A  subject  not  in  itself  pic- 
turesque or  capable  of  exciting  emotion  will  not  be  made  so 
by  presenting  it  in  highly  figurative  or  impassioned  diction. 
The  character  of  the  thought  as  pathetic,  humorous,  witty, 
ironical,  or  picturesque,  will  determine  the  language  to  be 
used  in  expressing  it.  Some  writers  mistake  effect  for 
force,  and  in  striving  after  effect  employ  big  words  and 
high-sounding  phrases,  or  are  guilty  of  over-niceness  in 
expression  (k  fine  writing '),  forgetting  that  plain  statement 
is  nearly  always  the  most  forcible.  In  general,  whatever 
contributes  to  Unity  and  Clearness,  contributes  to  Force, 
but  a  paragraph  already  unified  and  clear  may  sometimes 


Appendix  H.  279 

be  improved  in  respect  of  Force  (1)  by  a  change  of  order  in 
the  sentences  (see  pp.  13-15),  (2)  by  the  addition  of  partic- 
ulars and  applications  (see  pp.  30,  32),  (3)  by  parallel  con- 
struction and  repetition  (see  pp.  38-40),  (4)  by  omission  of 
connectives  (see  p.  41),  and  (5)  by  condensing  and  short- 
ening sentences  (see  p.  151.  top). 

A  common  violation  of  the  principle  of  Force  is  over-use 
of  one  kind  of  sentence.  The  student  should  guard  against 
this  fault  by  familiarizing  himself  with  the  different  kinds, 
and  by  learning  the  advantage  of  each.  Sentences  are 
sometimes  classified  as  short  sentences  and  long  sentences, 
terms  which  do  not  need  to  be  defined ;  and  sometimes  as 
loose,  periodic,  and  balanced.  Each  has  its  peculiar  uses. 
Short  sentences  arrest  the  attention  more  sharply  than  long 
sentences ;  hence  they  may  be  used  for  marking  transitions, 
for  summarizing,  and  for  announcing  ideas  that  are  to  be 
developed  in  succeeding  sentences.  Short  sentences  may 
also  be  used  to  give  quickness  of  movement  and  abrupt 
emphasis.  (See  the  selection  from  Thackeray,  p.  140 ;  the 
selections  from  Emerson,  pp.  145,  157 ;  and  Carlyle,  p.  145 ; 
the  selection  from  Everett,  p.  148.  Notice  the  different  use 
which  each  author  makes  of  the  short  sentence.)  Long 
sentences  are  useful  to  exhibit  the  relation  of  a  principal 
idea  to  several  subordinate  ideas  within  a  single  group,  or 
to  show  connectedly  the  development  of  an  idea  in  its 
details.  Long  sentences  are  often  necessary  to  secure  effects 
of  rhythm,  antithesis,  and  climax.  Employed  in  consider- 
able numbers,  they  often  give  an  impression  of  dignity  and 
grace.  (See  the  selection  from  Morley,  p.  142 ;  from  Haw- 
thorne, p.  143 ;  from  Webster,  p.  155 ;  and  notice  the  use 
which  each  author  makes  of  the  long  sentence.) 

According  to  the  second  classification,  sentences  are  loose, 
periodic,  or  balanced.  A  loose  sentence  is  one  in  which  the 
sense  is  fairly  complete  at  one  or  more  points  before  the  end. 
The  following  is  an  example :  '  He  expresses  what  all  feel, 


280  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

but  all  cannot  say ;  (1)  and  his  sayings  pass  into  proverbs 
among  his  people,  (2)  and  his  phrases  become  household 
words  and  idioms  of  their  daily  speech,  (3)  which  is  tessel- 
lated with  the  rich  fragments  of  his  language,  (4)  as  we  see 
in  foreign  lands  the  marbles  of  Roman  grandeur  worked 
into  the  walls  and  pavements  of  modern  palaces.'  If  inter- 
rupted at  any  one  of  the  points  indicated  by  numbers,  this 
sentence  would  still  be  fairly  complete  in  sense.  Loose 
sentences  resemble  in  structure  those  which  we  use  in  con- 
versation ;  hence  they  give  an  impression  of  ease  and  natu- 
ralness. (See  the  selection  from  Holmes,  p.  143;  from 
Bagehot,  p.  144;  from  Dickens,  p.  153.)  A  periodic  sen- 
tence is  one  which  seems  incomplete  when  interrupted 
at  any  point  before  the  close.  Consider  the  structure  of 
the  following  sentence :  '  A  language  in  the  condition  in 
which  ours  is  at  present,  when  thousands  of  eyes  are  jeal- 
ously watching  its  integrity,  and  a  thousand  pens  are  ready 
to  be  drawn,  and  dyed  deep  in  ink,  to  challenge  and  oppose 
the  introduction  into  it  of  any  corrupt  form,  of  any  new  and 
uncalled-for  element,  can,  of  course,  undergo  only  the  slow- 
est and  the  least  essential  alteration.'  The  meaning  of  this 
sentence  is  suspended  until  the  very  end.  Interrupted  at 
any  point  before  the  end,  it  is  grammatically  incomplete. 
Periodic  sentences  are  used  to  maintain  interest  and  to  give 
to  style  an  impression  of  dignity  and  completeness.  (See 
the  selection  from  Morison,  p.  137 ;  from  Gibbon,  p.  149 ; 
from  Arnold,  p.  151.)  A  balanced  sentence  is  one  in  which 
different  parts  are  made  similar  in  form  in  order  to  bring 
out  parallelism  in  meaning.  (See  pp.  38,  39.)  The  follow- 
ing is  an  example  :  '  On  the  third  of  November,  1640,  a  day 
to  be  long  remembered,  met  that  great  Parliament,  destined 
to  every  extreme  of  fortune,  to  empire  and  to  servitude,  to 
glory  and  to  contempt;  at  one  time  the  sovereign  of  its 
sovereign,  at  another  time  the  servant  of  its  servants.' 
Sentences  of  this  type  are  used  to  give  force  and  point  to 


Appendix  H. 

contrasted  ideas.  In  form  they  are  more  impressive  than 
other  kinds  of  sentences,  and  consequently  are  more  liable 
to  abuse.  A  safe  rule  is  to  use  the  balanced  sentence  only 
when  it  is  demanded  by  a  parallelism  in  the  thought. 

To  use  in  successive  paragraphs  one  length  or  one  type 
of  sentences  results  in  feebleness  and  monotony  of  style. 
Over-use  of  the  short  sentence  leads  to  scrappiness ;  of  the 
long  sentence,  to  diifuseness  or  obscurity.  Loose  sentences 
are  apt  to  be  slovenly.  Periodic  sentences,  especially  if 
long,  require  sustained  attention  and  soon  weary.  A  para- 
graph composed  solely  of  balanced  sentences  is  almost 
unreadable.  The  principle  of  Force  requires  a  judicious 
mingling  of  these  various  kinds.  If  the  student  inclines  to 
write  short  sentences,  let  him  now  and  then  introduce  a 
moderately  long  one.  If  he  inclines  to  write  long  sentences, 
let  him  introduce  among  them  sentences  that  are  brief  and 
pointed.  A  succession  of  periods  should  be  interrupted  by 
looser  forms,  and  in  a  succession  of  loose  sentences  a  sus- 
pended sentence  should  now  and  then  appear. 

64.  Gauge  force  of  expression  by  force  of  thought, 

65.  Avoid  bombast  and  fine  writing, 

66.  Depend  for  force  mainly  upon  paragraph  structure,  order 
and  brevity  of  sentences,  and  condensation, 

67.  Avoid  monotony  by  mingling  sentences  of  various  lengths 
and  of  various  kinds, 

(5)  FORCE  OF  SINGLE  SENTENCES  IN  A  PARAGRAPH. 

68.  Problems  of  Sentential  Force.  —  Force  in  the  sentence, 
as  in  the  paragraph,  presents  two  kinds  of  problems, — 
problems  of  position  and  structure  of  parts,  and  problems 
of  choice  among  words,  sounds,  and  figures.     (1)  Important 
words  should  be  so  placed  that  the  reader  cannot  help  em- 


282  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

phasizing  them.  (2)  Unimportant  words  should  be  so 
placed  as  to  refuse  emphasis  when  read.  Emphasis  is 
secured  to  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  by  placing  it  out  of  its 
usual  position  in  the  sentence.  The  positions  most  natu- 
rally emphatic  in  the  sentence  are  at  the  end  and  at  the 
beginning.  There  is  in  every  good  sentence  one  point  at 
which  the  emphasis  culminates ;  that  point  should  be  occu- 
pie^.  by  the  most  important  expression.  But  emphasis 
must  be  varied,  or  (3)  we  have  monotony  of  structure. 
When  (4)  an  unexpected  change  of  construction  is  made, 
or  (5)  awkward  constructions  are  introduced,  there  is  loss 
of  force  and  of  emphasis.  (6)  Since  the  end  of  the  sen- 
tence is  a  naturally  strong  position,  it  should  not  be  surren- 
dered to  an  unimportant  phrase  or  clause.  (7)  Constructions 
borrowed  from  another  language,  by  violating  the  English 
word-order,  dissipate  or  divert  the  emphasis  and  weaken 
the  force  of  the  sentence.  (8)  Condensation  of  clauses  to 
phrases,  or  of  phrases  to  single  words,  will  often  strengthen 
a  sentence.  Weakness  results  when  (9)  the  terms  employed 
are  too  general,  when  (10)  unimportant  words  are  repeated, 
when  (11)  there  is  an  unintended  jingle  of  sounds  or  a  queer 
combination  of  sounds.  There  are,  also,  (12)  expressions 
that  are  weak  in  themselves,  from  having  been  used  loosely 
or  indefinitely  for  a  long  time.  (13)  Finally,  faulty  figures 
are  a  source  of  weakness.  We  shall  take  up  in  order  these 
thirteen  violations  of  Force-requirements. 

69.  Unimportant  Words  Emphasized.  — '  Washington  en- 
camped for  the  winter,  with  the  remnant  of  his  army,  in  a 
small  valley  near  the  city  in  which  his  enemies  swarmed ; 
but  the  weather  was  so  cold  that  he  was  in  no  danger  of 
attack.'  Better,  'The  small  valley  in  which  Washington 
with  the  remnant  of  his  army  encamped  for  the  winter,  was 
near  the  city  in  which  his  enemies  swarmed;  but  the 
weather/  etc. 


Appendix  H.  283 

' This  is  not  true  of  any  other  country.'  Better,  '  Of  no 
other  country  is  this  true.?  See  §  72. 

70.  (2)  Important  Words  Unemphasized.  — '  It  is  remark- 
able that  although  Washington  had  that  excessive  pride  in 
his  high  position  which  is  shown  in  his  portrait,  he  always 
evinced  the  deepest  interest  in  the  humblest  of  his  soldiers.' 
Better,  '  It  is  remarkable  that,  although  Washington's  pride 
in  his  high  position,  as  shown  in  his  portrait,  was  excessive, 
he  always  evinced/  etc. 

'  Of  course  in  America,  where  the  names  college  and  uni- 
versity are  applied  indifferently  to  the  same  institution,  the 
term  degree  has  lost  its  exactness  and  is  but  a  seeming 
parallel  to  the  term  as  used  originally  in  the  older  universi- 
ties of  Europe.'  Better,  '  And  its  identity  with  the  term  as 
used  originally  in  the  older  universities  of  Europe  is  only 
apparent.' 

'We  see  frankness  and  honesty  in  this  face.'  Better, 
'What  we  see  in  this  face  is  frankness  and  honesty.' 

<  His  fall  was  sad.'     Better,  <  How  sad  his  fall ! ' 

'  This  will  not  be  denied.'  <  Better,  '  Will  any  one  deny 
this  ? ' 

71.  Important  words  should  occupy  emphatic  positions, 

72.  Emphasis  is  sometimes  secured  by  inversion,    See  page  37. 

73.  Emphasis  is  sometimes  gained  by  changing  a  declarative 
to  an  exclamatory  or  an  interrogative  sentence, 

74.  (3)    Monotonous  Recurrence   of  the   Same  Structure. 
—  'That  Washington  was  a  great  general,  we  know;  that 
he  was  an  honest  statesman,  we  are  certain;  that  he  was 
never  moved  by  selfish  ambition,  history  proves.'     Better, 
'  We  know  that  Washington  was  a  great  general ;  that  he 
was   an  honest   statesman,   we   are   certain;    and    history 
proves  that  he  was  never  moved  by  selfish  ambition.' 


284  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

75.  Vary  the  emphasis  by  varying  the  structure, 

76.  (4)  Unexpected  Change  of  Construction.  — '  The  Indians 
make  signals  by  covering  the  fire  until  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  smoke  is  accumulated,  and  it  is  then  allowed  to  ascend  in 
short  puffs.'     Better,  '  And  then  allowing  it  to  ascend/  etc. 

'The  young  man's  fists  were  impressing  his  arguments 
on  the  radiator  more  forcibly  perhaps  than  he  will  ever 
be  able  to  impress  them  in  a  less  literal  sense.7  Better, 
'  Than  he  will  ever  be  able  to  impress  them  on  the  public.7 

(  She  saw  them  striving  to  find  the  unknown  and  that 
they  never  found  it.7  Better,  ( But  never  finding  it.7 

'The  women7s  parlors  are  admirably  adapted  for  social 
gatherings  as  well  as  a  retreat  for  the  weary.7  Better, 
*  They  are  also  a  retreat  for  the  weary.7 

'We  know  of  his  irreproachable  character  and  that  he 
is  not  capable  of  such  a  deed.7  Better,  *  We  know  that 
his  character  is  irreproachable  and  that  he  is  not  capable 
of  such  a  deed.7 

'  He  saw  his  danger  and  that  another  step  would  be  fatal.7 
Better,  ( He  saw  that  his  position  was  dangerous  and  that/ 
etc. ;  or,  ( He  saw  his  danger  and  the  fatality  of  another 
step.7 

77.  In  similar  parts  of  the  sentence,  use  the  same  construction, 

78.  (5)    Awkward   Constructions.  — '  The   building  is   of 
brown-stone,  having  been  erected  two  years  ago.7     Better, 
'  The  building  is  of  brown-stone  and  was  erected  two  years 
ago.7     See  §  79. 

'There  is  no  need  of  discussing  the  question  of  how  it 
happened.7  Better,  'There  is  no  need  of  discussing  how 
it  happened.7 

'  I  came  in  contact  with  creatures  whose  existence,  as 
possible,  had  never  occurred  to  me.7  Better,  '  Creatures  the 
possibility  of  whose  existence/  etc. 


Appendix  H.  285 

'The  air  becomes  vitiated  and  without  any  life-giving 
qualities.'  Better,  '  And  loses  its  life-giving  qualities.' 

'The  desks  follow  the  shape  of  the  wall,  thus  causing 
them  to  assume  the  form  of  concentric  curves.'  Better, 
'  Assuming  the  form  of  concentric  curves.' 

79.  Do  not  subordinate  an  independent  thought, 

80.  Avoid  awkward  constructions, 

81.  (6)    Weak  or  Abrupt  Ending.  — '  The  change  would 
be  of  the  greatest  value  to  all  students,  that  is,  to  those 
who  regularly  study   on  Sunday,  at  least.'     Better,  'The 
change  would  be  of  the  greatest  value  to  all  students,  and 
especially  to  those  who  regularly  study  on  Sunday.' 

'Let  those  who  are  ambitious  to  win  place  or  power, 
worry.'  Better,  '  Let  those  worry  who,'  etc. 

82.  Do  not  put  a  weak  phrase  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 

83.  An  important  thought  at  the  close  of  a  sentence  requires  a 
volume  of  sound  corresponding  to  the  sense, 

84.  (7)   Construction  Borrowed  from  Another  Language. 
— '  Under  the  then  existing  circumstances,  nothing  could 
be  done.'     Better,  'Under  the  circumstances  then  existing, 
nothing  could  be  done.' 

'The  too  great  distance  of  the  proposed  field  from  the 
campus  is  another  objection.  An  admittedly  by  far  better 
location  is  on  High  Street.'  Better,  '  The  proposed  field  is 
too  far  from  the  campus.  It  is  admitted  that  High  Street 
would  afford  a  much  better  location.' 

'We  ran  the  entire  gamut  of  our  at  that  time  possibilities.' 
(Omit  at  that  time.) 

'  He,  when  he  had  put  a  white  tie  on,  looked  around  for 
his  gloves.'  Better,  '  After  putting  on  a  white  tie,  he  looked 
around  for  his  gloves.' 


286  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

85.  A  construction  borrowed  from  another  language  requires  a 
change  to  the  natural  word-order  of  English, 

86.  (8)    Condensation.  —  '  The  Church  and   Parliament 
were  opposed  to  his  claims  and  created  a  strong  opposi- 
tion.'    Better,  <  The  Church  and  Parliament  created  a  strong 
opposition  to  his  claims.' 

4  Two  green  eyes  glared  at  him  through  the  darkness  and 
came  nearer  and  nearer,  and  when  he  was  about  to  call  for 
help  he  found  that  it  was  only  a  cat.'  Better,  <  Two  green 
eyes  glared  at  him  through  the  darkness ;  nearer  and  nearer 
they  came;  he  was  about  to  call  for  help  when  he  found 
that  it  was  only  a  cat.' 

'The  twenty-eight  hundred  students  (omit)  assembled 
united  in  giving  the  University  yell.7 

'If  you  will  only  coddle  him,  he  will  treat  you  well.' 
Better,  '  Coddle  him,  and  he/  etc. 

'When  he  had  done  the  deed,  he  disappeared.'  Better, 
<  The  deed  done,  he  disappeared.' 

87.  Force  is  gained  by  cutting  out  all  words  that  may  be  dis- 
pensed with, 

88.  The  imperative  and  the  participle  are  means  of  conden- 
sation, 

89.  (9)   Terms  too    General.  — '  An  epidemic  existed  in 
the  interior;  the  inhabitants  were  dying  in  large  numbers.' 
Better,  ( An  epidemic  was  raging  in  the  interior  ;  the  people 
were  dying  by  thousands.' 

90.  lor  strength  use  particular  terms  instead  of  general  terms, 

91.  (10)    Repetition    to   be   Avoided.  — '  His   person  and 
manner  were  ungracious  enough,  so  that  he  prevailed  only 
by  strength  of  his  reason,  which  was  enforced  with  con- 
fidence enough.' 


Appendix  H.  287 

'  Near  by  are  some  shells  thrown  up  by  the  waves  in  some 
storm.' 

'It  is  only  comparative??/  recen%  that  it  has  been  dis- 
tinct^ seen  by  astronomers.7 

6  Certain  characteristics  are  certain  to  offend/ 

6  Letting  our  eyes  fall  once  more  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  let  us  look  more  carefully  at  the  scene.7 

6  His  life  went  on  on  the  peaceful  lines  which  he  had  laid 
down  for  himself.' 

'A  simple-hearted  man  with  nothing  to  influence  other 
men  with  but  goodness  of  heart.' 

92.  (11)   Euphony    Violated. — ''Recall  all  the   thrilling 
incidents  of  that  day.7     Better,  Recollect,  etc. 

'  He  was  proud  of  the  learning  he  had  got.'  Better,  which 
he  had  acquired. 

'The  second  tumbril  empties  and  moves  off;  the  third 
comes  up.'  Better,  approaches. 

'  Suc/i  changing  scenes.7     ('  Such  varying  scenes.7) 

93.  Avoid  needless  repetitions  of  the  same  word, 

94.  Avoid  close  repetitions  of  the  same  sound, 

95.  Avoid  a  succession  of  monosyllables, 

96.  Avoid  harsh  or  abrupt  endings, 

97.  (12)    Weak  and  Hackneyed  Expressions.  —  If  I  may 
be  allowed  to  use  the  figure;   Situated  as  it  is,  on  Lake 
Michigan,   etc. ;    very   nice ;    very  happy ;    as   it   were ;   I 
think;  that  is  to  say;  this  subject  is  very  important;  the 
end  is  not  yet ;    suffice  it  to  say ;    etc.  —  when  used  fre- 
quently. 

'Just  beyond  the  laboratory  is  a  storeroom,  (omit)  so  to 
speak,  where  chemicals  and  apparatus  are  kept.7 

'The  Library  is  the  best  place,  (omit)  to  be  found  for 
collecting  class-taxes.7 


288  Paragraph  -  Writing. 

'He  seemed  at  times  to  mock  at  reason,  defy  judgment, 
and  lack  (better,  break  througJi)  all  restraint.7 
'  Near  the  palace  is  (better,  totters)  the  hovel.7 

98.  Avoid  trite  and  meaningless  expressions. 

99.  A  verb  implying  action  is  more  forcible  than  a  verb  pas- 
sive in  sense, 

100.  (13)  Figures  Faulty  or   Uncalled  for.  — '  He   would 
have  given  his  all  —  life  itself,  his  hopes,  his  prospects  — 
to  blot  out  that  deed.7      (Anticlimax.     Put  life  itself  Sifter 
prospects.) 

6  The  wildest  excitement  prevailed,  and  at  two  o7clock  the 
hungry  eyes  of  the  sailors  feasted  once  more  upon  dry 
land.7  See  §  101. 

'  In  our  Teachers7  Association  will  be  found  many  of  the 
wheel  horses  who  teach  the  young  idea  how  to  shoot.7  See 
§§  98  and  102. 

<Life7s  sunset  is  approaching.7  Better,  <Life7s  sun  is 
setting.7 

'  The  plan  of  representing  the  character  of  the  surface  by 
contour  lines  has  its  advantages  and  disadvantages  and, 
(omit)  like  the  Nebular  Theory,  has  many  supporters.7 

'  The  teacher  should  be  all  that  is  noble  and  pure.  The 
children,  (omit)  those  blossoms  of  love,  are  constantly  look- 
ing to  the  teacher  for  guidance.' 

101.  Beware  of  the  mixed  metaphor  and  the  anticlimax, 

102.  Do  not  use  a  figure  unless  it  brings  strength  to  the 
sentence, 


INDEXES. 


I.    GENERAL   INDEX. 

[The  numbers  refer  to  the  pages  of  the  text.  Names  of  authors  whose 
works  are  quoted  and  of  periodicals  from  which  extracts  have  been  made, 
are  in  SMALL  CAPITALS.] 

ABBOTT,  146.  Abstracts,  85,  182-184.  ALEXANDER,  147, 
148.  Amplifying  Paragraphs,  63,  64,  189-191.  Analysis,  137- 
141, 191-202.  Application,  32.  A  Priori  Proofs,  88,  89.  Argu- 
ment, 87-92,  123,  124,  130,  135.  Argument,  Subjects  for  Essays  in 
(see  Index  II.).  Argumentative  Type,  48-54.  ARNOLD,  139, 
144,  151,  162,  186.  Authority,  89. 

BACON,  31,  146.  BAGEHOT,  31,  34,  141,  142,  144,  160.  BAIN, 
44.  Bain,  106.  BIRRELL,  13.  BOLINGBROKE,  189.  BRYCE, 
186.  BUCKLE,  139.  BUCKLEY,  8.  Burden  of  Proof,  91. 

BURKE,  35,  38,  50,  160,  188. 

Campbell,  106.  CARLYLE,  18,  57,  145.  Carpenter,  106. 
CENTURY,  3,  34,  160.  CHANNING,  187.  Character  Sketches,  58. 
CHICAGO  HERALD,  30.  CHRISTIAN  UNION,  3.  Clark,  J.  S.,  106. 
CLARKE,  63,  146,  150.  Clearness,  266-278.  Climax,  13,  14.  CLAY, 
34.  Concluding  Paragraphs,  61,  63,  185,  186.  CONTEMPORARY 
REVIEW,  147.  Contrary,  Presenting  the,  27,  28.  Correcting  Manu- 
scripts, Abbreviations  for,  255-259.  Criticism,  83-85.  CURTIS,  53. 

Deduction,   49,    102,    105.  Definition,   52,  80.  Definitive 

Statements,  26.  De  Mille,  106.  DE  QUINCEY,  7,  41,  44. 
Description,  55,  56,  65-70,  131.  Description,  Subjects  for  Essays 
in  (see  Index  II.).  Developing,  Means  of,  24-36.  DICKENS,  56, 
153.  Directive  Paragraphs,  63,  187,  188.  Division,  78,  125, 
129.  DRUMMOND,  26.  DRYDEN,  4. 

EARLE,  10.  Editing,  202-203.  ELIOT,  GEORGE,  145.  EMER- 
SON, 11,  145,  147,  149,  156.  Enforcement,  32.  Essays,  64-92. 

289 


290  Indexes. 

EVERETT,  64.  Examples,  88-90.  Explanation,  28-30.  Ex- 
position, 75-87,  125-128,  130,  136.  Exposition,  Subjects  for  Essays 
in  (see  Index  II.).  Expository  Type,  48-54. 

FARRAR,  30.      FIELDS,  157.      Force,  278-288.       FROUDE,  143,  157. 

GARDINER,  62.  Genung,  106,  118,  119.  GIBBON,  149,  159. 
GOLDSMITH,  161.  GRAHAM,  146.  GREEN,  J.  R.,  55, 58."  GROTE,  37. 

HAMERTON,  1,  20,  187.  HAMILTON,  52.  HARE,  162.  HAR- 
PER'S MAGAZINE,  163-165.  HARVARD  MONTHLY,  153.  HAW- 
THORNE, 143,  159.  HIGGINSON,  163.  Hill,  A.  S.,  106.  Hill, 
D.  J.,  106.  HOLMES,  29,  143.  Hunt,  106.  HUXLEY,  30. 

Illustration,  28-30.  Induction,  50,  90,  102-105.  Introduc- 
tory Paragraphs,  61,  63,  185-187.  Introductory  Sentences,  33,  34. 
Inversion,  37.  IRVING,  149.  Isolated  Paragraph,  2,  18. 

JAMES,  W.,  54,  94.        JOHNSON,  14,  150. 

KlNGSLEY,  27. 

LAMB,  35,  44.  Length  of  Paragraph,  10.  LEWES,  104,  156, 
187.  LIVERMORE,  185.  Logical  Type,  48.  LONDON  SPECTATOR, 
21.  LONDON  TIMES,  32.  LOWELL,  37,  62.  LUCE,  186. 

MCCARTHY,  24,   153.         MACAULAY,   7,  9,  12,  13,  28,  43,   45,  46, 

158,    188.          McElroy,   106.          MC^EILL,  155.  MANN,   21,  32. 

MATHEWS,  159.         MERIVALE,  102.         Method,  13.  MILL,  J.   S., 

27,  156.  Minto,  106.  MORLEY,  142,  162.  MORISON,  137. 
MURRAY,  J.  C.,  144.  MURRAY,  J.  O.,  27. 

Narration,  55,   56,  70-75,   132-134.  Narration,    Subjects    for 

Essays  in  (see  Index  II.).         NEW  YORK  PRESS,  22. 

Outlines  of  Essays,  119-137. 

PAGET,  103.  Paragraph  Structure,  Typical,  119.  Parallel 
Construction,  38,  123.  Paraphrase,  85,  182-184.  PARKER,  28. 
Partition,  77.  PATER,  139.  Portrait  Sketches,  56.  Proof- 
reading, 202-211.  Proofs,  31,  88,  89.  Proportion,  10.  Punctu- 
ation, 42-47,  244-255. 

Reference,  Explicit,  40.  Reference  List,  212,  213.  Refuta- 
tion, 90,  91.  Related  Paragraph,  2,  60-92.  RENTON,  100. 
Repetition,  39,  40  ;  of  Theme,  25,  26.  Reporting,  202-203.  Re- 
productions, 180-182.  Rhetoric  of  the  Paragraph,  260-288.  ROBERT- 
SON, 151,  153.  RUSKIN,  6,  22,  27,  33,  47,  55,  79,  148,  160. 


II.   Index  to  Essay-Subjects.  291 

SAINTSBURY,  9.  Selection,  6.  Sentence  Structure,  36.  Se- 
quence, 13.  SHAIRP,  189,  190.  SHELLEY,  188.  Signs,  88,  89. 
SMILES,  158.  SMITH,  SIDNEY,  158,  161.  SPENCER,  31,  49,  50,  140. 
STEDMAN,  152,  185.  Subject,  General,  17 ;  of  Paragraph,  19. 
Subjects  of  Essays,  213-244  (see  Index  II.).  Subjects  to  be 
narrowed,  110.  Subordination,  40-42.  Summarizing  Sentences, 
33-36.  SWINBURNE,  26. 

TAYLOR,  150.  Ten-minute  Themes,  172-179.  THACKERAY, 
151.  Theme,  17.  Theory  of  Paragraph,  93-106.  Topic- 
sentence,  19-24.  Topic-sentences  to  be  developed,  111-118. 
Transitional  Paragraphs,  63,  187-188';  Sentences,  33.  Types  of 
Paragraph  Structure,  47-54. 

Unit  of  Discourse,  1,  2.        Unity,  4,  16,  23,  260-265. 
Variety,  15.        VON  HOLST,  185. 

WALKER,  49.  WEBSTER,  14,  155.  Wendell,  106.  WHIT- 
NEY, 97,  154. 


II.    INDEX  TO  ESSAY-SUBJECTS. 

[The  figures  (in  bold-faced  type)  before  the  colon  refer  to  the  page; 
the  figure  or  figures  after  the  colon  refer  to  the  number  of  the  subject.] 

Description.  —  214  :  8  ;  217  :  116,  131 ;  219  :  12,  17  ;  220  : 
32,  42  ;  221 :  33,  34,  36,  38  ;  223  :  101,  102,  106  ;  225  :  149  ; 
226 :  180,  183,  184  ;  228:  236  ;  229  :  46,  59  ;  23O  :  75,  2,  3  ; 
231:35,41;  233:80,18-20;  235:27-30,33,37;  237:1; 
238  :  8,  16,  18,  20,  21,  32,  34  ;  239  :  50-58,  63,  84,  85,  87,  91,  92, 
97,  98;  240:  100,  101,  102,  105,  107-112,  115,  117,  118,  121,  122, 
125,  127-132,  134,  136,  138,  139,  142,  146,  148-151,  153,  155-158; 
241 :  159-162,  166,  167, 169,  171,  174,  179,  180,  182,  185,  186,  188-191, 
193,  194,  196,  198,  199,  202,  206,  208,  210  ;  242:  213,  219,  221-224, 
226,  227,  232,  234-237,  241,  245,249-251,274,275,284-287,296-298, 
301,  308,  313  ;  244  :  317,  318,  320. 

Narration.  — 213:  5;  217:  117-119;  218:  1-3,  17;  219: 
27;  221:  31,  34,  38;  223:  88,  89,  92,  94,  100,  103,  107; 
224:  118;  225:  153,  154,  156,  167;  227:  234;  231:  14,  15, 
27,  33  ;  232  :  42,  43,  49,  50  ;  233  :  76,  78  ;  234 :  3,  6,  15,  26  ; 


292  Indexes. 

235 :  25,  31  ;  237  :  61 ;  238  :  24  ;  239  :  68,  81,  83,  86,  95  ; 
240 :  106,  113,  116,  120,  123,  126,  129,  130, 132-135, 137, 143-145,  147, 
152-155,  158  ;  241 :  160,  163-170,  174,  177,  178,  180-186,  188,  189, 
193,  199,  200,  203-205,  207,  208,  211,  212  ;  242  :  215,  228,  229,  231, 
245,  274,  275,  291,  292,  299,  304,  305,  307,  309. 

Exposition.  — 213  :  12,  4  ;  214  :  7,  9-12,  14,  15,  17-20,  24-32  ; 
215  :  33,  34,  36-66  ;  216  :  67-81,  83-94,  97-99  ;  217  :  102-115, 
120-124,  127-130;  218:  4-15,  18-24;  219:  3-8,  10,  11,  14-16, 
18-27,  29-31 ;  22O  :  33-41,  43-46,  1,  4,  7-11,  17  ;  221:  18-25,  28, 
29,  31,  33,  39-41,  43,  46,  47,  48;  222:  52,  55-59,  61,  62,  64-68, 
73-75,  79,  80,  82  ;  223 :  84,  86,  87,  90,  91,  93,  95-99,  103-105  ; 
224:  117,  119,  121,  130-133,  136,  142-144;  225:  145-148,  152, 
155,  157-165,  170-174,  176,  177;  226:  178,  181,  182,  185,  186, 
189-191,  195;  227  :  221,  233  ;  228  :  235,  2-9,  12,  15,  18,  23-27  ; 
229:  29-40,  42,  47-49,  51,  52,  57;  230 :  60,  1,  4-7;  231:  8, 
10-13,  16-26,  28-32,  34,  37-40  ;  232  :  44-48,  51-58,  60-72  ;  233 : 
73,  74,  77,  79,  1,  4, 17,  8,  10-14,  16,  17,  22 ;  234 :  1-4,  6-8,  10-25, 
28-32  ;  235  :  33-36,  38-40,  42,  43,  1-8,  10-12  ;  236  :  13-18,  22-24, 
26,  32,  34-36,  38-41  ;  237  :  42, 43,  45-60,  62, 2,  3,  4,  6  ;  238  :  9-12, 
14,  15,  17,  19,  22,  23,  25-31,  33,  36-38,  43-46 ;  239 :  48,  49,  60-62, 
64-67,  70,  72-75,  77-80,  82,  84-90,  93,  94,  96;  240 :  103,  114,  119, 
121,  122,  124,  125,  128,  140,  141  ;  241 :  72,  173,  175,  176,  181,  184, 
187,  192,  195,  197,  201,  209;  242:  214,  216-218,  220,  222,  225, 
230,  233,  238-240,  242-244,  246-248,  252-267  ;  243 :  268-273,  276, 
288-290,  293,  294,297,  302,  303,  306,  310-312;  244:  314-316,  319, 
321. 

Argument.  — 213:  3,  6;  214:  13,  16,  21-23;  215:  35; 
216:  82,  95,  96;  217:  100,  101,  125,  126;  218:  10-12,  14-16; 
219  :  1,  2,  9,  11,  13,  15,  16,  25,  26,  28  ;  22O  :  35,  36,  38,  1,  2,  3,  5,  6, 
9,  10,  12-16;  221 :  18,  19,  26,  27,  30,  32,  37,  42,  44,  45,  46 ;  222 : 
49-51,  53,  54,  56,  60,  63,  69-72,  76-78,  80,  81 ;  223  :  83,  85,  108, 109, 
110-116,  120,  122-129,  134-141;  225:  151,  166,  168,  169,  175; 
226 :  179,  185-188,  192-194,  196-207  ;  227  :  208-220,  222-232  ; 
228:  1,  10,  11,  13,  14,  16,  17,  19-22,  28;  229:  29,  41,  43-45, 
50,  53-56,  58  ;  230  :  61-74  ;  231 :  9,  36  ;  232 :  59  ;  233  :  75, 
9,  21  ;  234  :  5,  7,  9,  27  ;  235 :  37,  41,  9,  19,  20,  21  ;  237  :  44,  5  ; 
238  :  13,  35,  39-42,  47  ;  239  :  69,  71,  76,  99  ;  240 :  104,  124,  140  ; 
243  :  277-283,  287,  295. 


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